Lev semenovich vygotsky, two types of psychological development

Lev Semenovich Vygotsky was a developmental Psychologist. He lived a short life during turbulent, radical times. Lev Vygotsky was born on the 17th November 1896 in Orsha, a metropolis in the Western part of the Russian Empire in a Judaic household. He died 37 old ages subsequently from TB in Stalinist, Russia. Vygotsky was a Lawyer based on his University instruction and a school instructor by business. Although his involvements were rather diverse his Hagiographas frequently centred on subjects of kid development and instruction. Some of the major theories developed by Lev Vygotsky include ; Socio-cultural Theory – Vygotsky proposed there were two types of psychological development ; â€Å" natural † consisting of biological growing, physical and cognitive development ; and â€Å" cultural † , dwelling of larning to utilize psychological and cultural tools, including marks, symbols and linguistic communication. Vygotsky believed that a kid ‘s development is a consequence of his/her civilization. He thought that development applied ab initio to the psychological procedure, for illustration, linguistic communication accomplishments, the manner of thought and other mental maps. Vygotsky believed the above is accomplishable through interacting socially with others, the parents being of peculiar influence to the kid along-side knowing others. Interaction with others enables a kid to larn the life style of his/her civilization. These wonts being things such as address forms, the written linguistic communication and other constructed cognition. Both n atural and cultural operation act jointly to simplify the development procedure. Vygotskys socio-cultural theory suggests that societal interaction leads to uninterrupted bit-by-bit alterations in a kid ‘s idea and behavior that can change greatly from civilization to civilization ( Woolfolk, 1998 ) . Basically, Vygotskys theory implies that development depends on a kid ‘s interaction with others and the tools that civilization provides to assist them organize their ain position of the universe. His theory combines the societal environment and knowledge. Children will get the ways of thought and behaving by interacting with a more knowing other. Vygotsky believed that every map in the kid ‘s cultural development appears twice, foremost on the societal degree and subsequently, on the single degree, foremost between people ( inter-psychological ) and so inside the kid ( intra-psychological ) Vygotsky, 1978. The socio-cultural theory consists of several elements to as sist implement it ( see below left ) . Language and the thoughts that are expressed by agencies of linguistic communication play a cardinal function in mental development.image Zone of Proximal development – Harmonizing to Vygotsky kids learn by following the beliefs, values, and attitudes of others, either consciously or unconsciously as a consequence of interacting with them. Vygotsky argues that the Zone of Proximal Development ( ZPD ) is the difference between a kid ‘s bing abilities and what s/he can larn under counsel from a knowing other. Therefore the Proximal Zone is the difference between what kids are already able to make and what they are non rather ready to carry through by themselves. Harmonizing to Vygotsky, a knowing other must assist direct and organize a kid ‘s acquisition before the kid can understand and follow it. In order for the ZPD to be a success, it must incorporate two characteristics, the first of which is called subjectiveness. This term implies that the knowing other must hold a common apprehension of what they are making with the kid, in-other-words both parties must hold a shared end. The kid uses the exper tness of the knowing other ( adept ) in the acquisition procedure. To get down the expert takes duty, so as the kid ( novice ) learns, the expert transportations rational duty to the novitiate. This is non immediate but a gradual procedure for illustration, when an expert teaches a kid how to swim, the expert first supports the kid in the H2O and so Lashkar-e-Taibas go bit by bit, there-by switching duty to the kid. The ZPD uses two degrees to find a kid ‘s ability and potency. A kid ‘s â€Å" existent development degree † is what s/he can accomplish unaided without aid. This sets the footing for a kid ‘s cognition and is what is traditionally assessed and valued in schools. The â€Å" possible development degree † is the degree of proficiency a kid can make when s/he is guided and supported by another individual. Social interaction helps a kid to retrieve and may even keep the cardinal to memory development. The construct of a important other steerin g a kid through the ZPD is known as guided engagement /scaffolding.Graph: Zone of proximal development: Vygotsky Guided Participation/Scaffolding – Harmonizing to Vygotsky staging is the procedure used by a knowing other to teach or steer a kid through hard jobs, in order to cultivate hypertext transfer protocol: //www.tascwheel.com/files/research/article-01/figure3.jpg her/his potency. Scaffolding makes it easy for a kid to construct on the cognition they already have and helps them follow new thoughts and attitudes. Any direction given by the knowing other must be directed towards the hereafter and non the yesteryear. Guidance can be given in legion different ways, by a knowing other, by cultural experiences or objects or by a kid ‘s old acquisition. Vygotsky assumed that a kid ‘s development is a consequence of his/her civilization. He thought that development applied chiefly to the psychological procedure, for illustration, usage of linguistic communication accomplishments, the logical thinking procedure and other mental maps. Vygotsky thought that the above is achieved through interacting with others, parents being peculiarly influential to the kid ‘s development along-side knowing others. Interaction with others enables a kid to larn the manner of life of his/her civilization, that is to state address forms, the written lingu istic communication and other constructed cognition. Vygotsky believed that societal interaction helps kids to retrieve and may even keep the cardinal to memory building. As illustrated in the image above, the scaffolding rule plants on the footing that the knowing other asks the kid unfastened ended, near ended inquiries and gives bit-by-bit instructions ever structuring the acquisition procedure. Encouragement and congratulations are offered at every chance, while each point is reinforced through presentation, repeat and the usage of psychological tools. This procedure helps the kid construct on their cognition. Psychological tools can be in the signifier of â€Å" symbolic objects † such as, marks, relevant texts, expression, graphs, important devices and today it besides includes electronic signifiers of information entree ( computers/internet ) .Internalization and LanguageAnother of import part made by Vygotsky connects the development of relationships between linguisti c communication and idea. This construct is farther explained in his book Thought and Language. It looks at the connexion between address ( soundless inner address and unwritten linguistic communication look ) and the development of mental perceptual experience and consciousness of one ‘s thought procedure. Vygotsky argues that it is through the above that a kid ‘s ideas and mental concepts are formed. Language development is formed in the undermentioned four phases ; Crude Stage – At this phase a kid has n't mastered the art of address s/he merely babblings. The sounds that s/he makes do n't hold any existent significance or intent. The kid is merely experimenting with their new found accomplishment. This action does non intend that a kid does non believe it merely suggests that s/he has non learned to internalize her/his address. Naive Stage – When a kid foremost learns to talk s/he may state certain words before s/he has a comprehensive apprehension of their significance and map. A kid merely understands that when a word is said in a certain manner others understand the significance. In other words understanding of a word comes before the kid really learns the full significance and intent of that word and is able to set it in any peculiar order. External Stage – In this phase the kid begins to utilize peripheral objects such as, flash cards, or fingers for numbering. This is besides the beginning of the egoistic address. The kid will speak to herself during drama with others or when there is no 1 else about. This action is the kid ‘s verbalization of ideas. In-growth Stage – In this phase the kid ‘s egoistic address turns inwards. S/he enters the concluding phase of linguistic communication development and with these new found abilities the kid is able to execute logical undertakings internally. Rather than numbering aloud s/he will number in her/his caput utilizing portion of her/his short term memory. Vygotsky believed that the more a kid uses internalised idea and logic, the better a kid can execute.Major Contributions to EducationVygotsky has made many of import parts to the instruction system and instruction, he has become to some extent a powerful figure in instruction, school psychological science and particular instruction, respected all over the universe. Many instructors and parents even before Vygotskys clip noticed an obvious connexion between support from a knowing other and the advancement a kid is able to do utilizing that support. Vygotskys ZPD helped determine options to standardized testing in schools. Vyg otsky founded what is known as â€Å" dynamic appraisal † . Dynamic assessment accent potency instead than present accomplishment and measures the acquisition procedure straight. Traditional trials merely measure the kid ‘s current abilities based on past acquisition and non the kid ‘s possible. Harmonizing to Vygotsky dynamic appraisal leads a kid to accomplish success through joint shared activity ( Lidz, 1995 ) . The ZPD has direct bearing on readying in school instruction, it enables a instructor to take methods bespoke for peculiar pupils. Vygotsky believed that the schoolroom is a society consisting of a community of scholars with assorted ability, expert/novice working together. He viewed the instructor as an teacher, steering and interacting with pupils. Through the procedure of scaffolding the instructor is able to supply support to the pupils. Through the effectual usage of linguistic communication in the staging procedure the instructor is able to negoc iate with the kid. Vygotskys theory encourages coaction in the schoolroom. The instructor has to supply sufficient support until the pupil is able to travel through all set undertakings independently.Vygotskys 4 Principles Applied in ClassroomsHypertext transfer protocol: //viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebooklet/et-it/4vygo.htm Learning and development is a societal collaborative activity – This suggests that interaction between grownups and other kids is critical. The usage of engineering to heighten communicating, contact and interaction would be good in the schoolroom. Programmes that support combined job resolution and synergistic determination doing enrich the acquisition environment. The ZPD can function as a usher for curricular and lesson be aftering – Appropriate support by the instructor can help the acquisition procedure. Thoughtful counsel and productive treatment with the debut of psychological tools such as, encyclopaedias on CD-ROM, package such as, grammar draughtss and encephalon storming package would all assist the kid develop understanding and cognition. School acquisition should happen in a meaningful context – We learn things in relation to what else we already know and believe. Learning is an active societal procedure. It is non possible to absorb new cognition without some kind of old cognition to construct upon. The more we know the more we learn. Therefore a instructor must link what is to be learned with the pupil ‘s old cognition. Relate out-of-school experience to the kid ‘s school experience – The linguistic communication we use influences larning. It is of import for a instructor to organize school larning around the civilization the kid knows and understands for illustration, a category of pupils analyzing history could utilize a multimedia presentation to bring forth a undertaking about the history of their town. Vygotsky has made valuable parts in determining learning methods within particular instruction. He insisted that instructors should make a acquisition environment which would provide handicapped pupils with alternate agencies of communicating and development and those psychological tools should be used by instructors that are most suitable to counterbalance for a pupil ‘s peculiar disablement. He argued that a kid ‘s societal eviction is the chief factor responsible for its flawed development. Vygotsky states that although sightlessness may be a biological defect, a instructor must non cover with the biological factor entirely but besides look at the societal effects faced by the kid as a consequence of its sightlessness. He promoted the thought that handicapped kids should be included in the social/cultural life of their communities as this would rush effectual rehabilitation.Some Restrictions to Vygotskys TheoryVygotsky stresses the importance of civilization and lingui stic communication in understanding. However there is limited research that determines whether grownup, kid and equal coactions differ in their value ( Miller 2002 ) . There is besides the inquiry on how much aid the knowing other should give the kid and whether excessively much coaction could take to regression instead than assist a pupil evolve ( Miller 2002 ) . Vygotskys theory is frequently compared to Jean Piaget, who believed that cognitive competency should non be looked at until a kid reached the appropriate development phase. Piaget believed that the most of import beginning of cogitation is the kid itself. It is frequently said that Vygotsky was in front of his times. His theory was formed over 50 old ages ago and his had such a profound consequence on our instruction system. Even today, instruction psychologists are still researching his theory, which could go an of import instrument to alter, regenerate our present instruction system.

Behavior: Sociology and Psychological Core Essay

1. How is Unilever applying its understanding of internal consumer processes in the psychological core to market its products? One company that has maintained its dominance over time is Unilever. The company make used of their understanding of internal processes which are a series of changes that occur within the individual, which includes the psychological processes: motivation, perception, attitude and knowledge. They market their products to get more customers by explaining to them how and why they should use a product in order to make their lives better and also to make them feeling good about doing that action and this one, is a part of knowledge in the psychological core. They also try to make the use of the product in easier way and to fit with the environmental issues which is a part of attitude in the psychological core. 2. Which of the four external processes in the consumer’s culture do you think have been the most important to the success of Dove’s Campaign for Real Beauty? Why? The four external processes in the consumer’s culture are religion, ethnicity, reference groups, and social class. For me, the most important external process in the consumer’s culture to the success of Dove’s Campaign for Real Beauty is the ethnicity. It is the fact or state of belonging to a social group that has a common national or cultural tradition. Dove’s Campaign aims to touch customers by telling them that there is no norms for beauty, every women is beautiful with her own features. They set up this campaign without any categories of women in order to reach women of all ages, races, or sizes. The idea was to target all kinds of consumers as possible. The campaign worked out very well because consumers recognized themselves in the ads. 3. Do you agree with Unilever’s decision to link its brands with efforts to encourage healthy and environmentally sustainability behaviors? Explain your answer. Definitely, yes I agree with Unilever’s decision to link its brands with efforts to encourage healthy and environmentally sustainability behavior because it is another way to catch more customers and spread a good image of the organization. It also shows that Unilever really care with the customer’s health. Unilever not just only sell products but they also assured that the consumers will fit and satisfied with their products. And it will be a best way for them to keep their customers, as well as to build loyalty.

Causes of Different Types of Crimes

Causes of Different Types of Crimes Deviant behaviors are those behaviors that society does not like because the society does not see the behavior as a normal behavior for that society. Like gay marriages or cross dressers. Deviant behavior that is criminal is when the behavior becomes harmful to those in the society. Like murdering a person. A behavior that is criminal but not deviant would be driving under the influence or being intoxicated in public. A behavior that is deviant but not criminal would be a teenager with piercings and tattoos all over their body. A behavior that is both deviant and criminal would be spousal abuse. Society determines which behaviors are deviant and which are criminal. Governments or even individuals can convince local authorities that a deviant act is criminal or vice versa. Criminal laws vary because the laws are imposed by the local authorities so the laws will be different from city to city, state to state, or even town to town. Criminologists utilize three primary sources of data t hat provide information on the nature and extent of crime. Identify and explain each of these three different sources of crime data. Also, assess the strengths and weaknesses of each source. Finally, provide an example of a research question that a criminologist may be interested in examining and then explain which source of crime data the researcher would need to utilize to answer his/her question. The three primary sources of data that can provide information on the nature and extent of crime are (1) crimes that get reported to the authorities, this includes the uniform crime reports and the national incident based reporting system (2) victimization surveys which includes the national crime victimization survey and (3) the self-report surveys that include the monitoring the future studies. The uniform crime reports are recorded by the FBI and include all the crimes that have been reported to the authorities and how many arrests are made. The report that the FBI makes is sectioned out by city and county by the most serious crimes that occurred. These are called â€Å"part I crimes and part II crimes† Part I crimes include things like rape, robbery and burglary whereas part II crimes include sex crimes and other types of crimes not defined in the part I crimes. A strength for the UCR is the way that the data is collected makes the UCR a good indicator of patterns in crime. A weakness for the UCR is that many crimes are not reported to authorities and therefore do not get counted. The national incident based reporting system goes a step further than the UCR does in that it requires local authorities to provide a report of the arrest that includes details of the incident and also information on the victim and the criminal. These reports are sent to the FBI for only certain offenses that include not only the offenses that the URC covers but also includes white collar crimes and drug offenses. A strength of the national incident based reporting system is th at it includes more details on the crimes than the UCR does which will hopefully improve how accurate the crime data is. A weakness of the NIBRS is that it only reports crime that have been reported to authorities it does not include crimes that have taken place but not reported by the victim.

B2B Marketing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

B2B Marketing - Assignment Example suppliers management quality and timely supply of materials to C4U. Card for you (C4U) is a small to medium sized UK firm manufacturing greeting cards. Since its establishment in 1990, C4U with its 50 employee producing silk embroidered designed mounted hand made card. C4U is marketing its products with notion of personal touch and setting its cards apart from other card manufacturers. Due to specialize products positioning C4U charged customers almost double the cost in comparison to other card makers. Consumers see this price as good value for money. Consumers are mostly from middle class. Though C4U turnover has increased, its only in the last year down turn in sales make its promoters to think about its functioning. Company uses sales agent on commission basis to contact with retailers and having different types of retail outlets. It uses exhibitions and events for promotion. Raw materials are purchased locally and labour force is also local and unskilled. C4U sometimes faces problems of supply in short notice. Card market condition of UK is get ting saturated. So in near future C4U has to device certain strategies to improve sales. They have to think about consumers and intermediaries and work on different options like customer segments, product range, channel management, marketing communication polices, the way competitors device their strategies, supply chain management and finally the overall marketing system. Creating A Value Network: Value network is a system of partnership and alliances that a firm creates to source, augment and deliver its offering (Kotler, 2003). The value network perspective yields several insights. First, a company can estimate whether more money is made upstream or down stream, second it is more aware of disturbances anywhere in the supply-chain that might cause costs process or supplies to change suddenly and third, value network partners can link through technology for faster, less costly and more accurate communications, transactions and payments. (Adapted from, Hemil, Jukka. Information technologies for value network integration. Espoo 2002. VTT Tiedotteita -Research Notes 2149. 97 p. + app. 1 p.) Accessed from website http://www.vtt.fi/inf/pdf/tiedotteet/2002/T2149.pdf. The picture shows that how at the different level core company has been integrated to supply chain management and customer relation management. Technologies have enabled the companies to integrate effectively and efficiently. Most producers do not sell directly to the final users. Marketing Channels Between producers and customers stands a set of intermediaries that perform various functions; these intermediaries constitute marketing channels, set of interdependent organizations involved in the process of making a product or service available, for use or consumption (Stern & El-Ansary, 1996). Marketing channels have different levels as shown in the fig. i.e. number of intermediaries varies in different types of channels. Levels of marketing channels Accessed from the website http://www.upe.ac.za/documents/busman/SU10.pdf Marketing channel decisions are among the most critical decisions, which have to be faced by management, because the chosen channels intimately affect all the other marketing decisions. Corey (1991; Ch. 5) observed; "a distribution system is a key external resource. Normally it takes years to build, advertisement

Western civilization. Industrial Revolution and Political Theories Essay

Western civilization. Industrial Revolution and Political Theories - Essay Example According to Montagna (2009), industrial revolution happened from 1750 to 1850 beginning in the United Kingdom spreading to Western Europe, Japan and North America. The industrial revolution was a major turning point in history. This marked the first time in history where living standards of ordinary people underwent sustainable growth. There are some innovations that are regarded to as the origins of the industrial revolution. These discoveries were in metal industry, textiles and the discovery of steam power (Montagna, 2009). Innovations in the textile industry included; the spinning jenny by James Hargreaves, the water frame by Richard Arkwright and the spinning mule by Samuel Crompton. These three sectors paved way for the industrial revolution. Before the revolution, wool was the major raw material in the textile industry. After these innovations the textile industry grew remarkably, since the exploitation of other raw materials like cotton was possible. Replacement of tradition al fuels like wood with coal saw a major change in the metal industry (Montagna, 2009). The coal produced a lot of heat and carbon monoxide reducing oxidation. Coal was a good fuel since impurities which were contained in it, did not migrate to the metal. This resulted in the iron industry growing remarkably. The stationary steam engine also paved way for the industrial revolution. ... This caused many children to find jobs in factories where they were paid very little income. The industrial revolution also resulted in high crime rate and social evils. As a result of high population, many people ended up jobless. This prompted them to engage in crime and other social evils such prostitution in order to earn a living. The industrial revolution also had an impact on the social class structure (Montagna, 2009). It resulted in the rise of middle class businessmen who rose above the noble class who owned large tracks of land. It also saw an increase of low class citizens who worked for minimum wages in the factories. The industrial revolution saw the development of good housing for the owners of the factories and very poor housing for the workers and laborers. Industrial revolution also resulted in poor health in the society. This was as a result of air, water and land pollution from the industries. Factories dumped toxic materials in land and water bodies which were in turn absorbed by people through food and drinking water. Many workers also suffered from lung diseases from the fumes which were present in the factories. The industrial revolution saw the emergence of workers unions and trade unions to fight for the rights of the workers. Most employer laws that we have today were as result of these trade unions. Lesson 8: Political Theories In this part of the assignment I will use Delacroix Eugene’s painting â€Å"Liberty Leading the People (28th July 1830)†. Source: Olga’s Gallery (2012) This painting is used to depict the celebration in 28th July 1830, where the people decided rise and dethrone king, replacing him with Louis

Hindu and Budhist thought Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Hindu and Budhist thought - Term Paper Example According to philosophers, both Buddhism and Hinduism go beyond religion and thus, they are more of a way of life or philosophy. The two are termed as a philosophy since philosophy has been accepted to imply love of wisdom. According to philosophers, the Buddhist path is interpreted as leading a moral life, being mindful, as well as being aware of actions and thoughts and being able to develop understanding and wisdom. On the other hand, Buddhism is a religion that is indigenous in the Indian subcontinent encompassing a variety of beliefs, practices and traditions largely based upon the teachings that are attributed to Siddhartha Gautama. Hinduism, on the other hand, is a representative of a diverse and broad philosophy imbedded within the Hindu religion. Hinduism rests upon the trantric and vedic traditions with the vedic traditions being represented within the veda’s. Hinduism or Vedanta has been a worldwide, age-old popular religion with an immense following making it be ra nked third among the world religions. It is based on certain beliefs, and it is one of the most mingled religions in the world. Unlike other world, religions, it is preached by various religious organizations and believes in multi-doctrines. Hinduism is a religion, a tradition, a culture, a philosophy, and a way of leading life in the name of some spiritual being. The followers of Hinduism believe in both animals and humans’ spirits, as well as in life after death. They draw their energies from the Goddesses and Gods Idols, in which they believe, and symbolize the existence of God on earth.

Irish Pub in rome Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Irish Pub in rome - Case Study Example Another essential step in the process would be identifying potential suppliers of refurbishing materials as well as bar and kitchen supplies, so that the bar can be well stocked up before it opens. Cost assumptions would need to be made on the basis of estimations about the prices of materials available from suppliers. The last stage of the project would involve the promotional activities associated with setting up the Irish bar in Rome and based upon the list of activities as identified above, the Work break down structure has been derived below: At the outset, the scope of the project needs to be defined. This is to be followed up by a plan of action whereby three steps must be executed at the same time, namely (a) liaising with authorities to procure the necessary licenses (b) determining the team members to form a part of the core team and (c) finding out the local suppliers of building materials and supplies. Each of these tasks links to related tasks, as shown in the WBS chart below: The Work breakdown structures are used to make complex projects more manageable by breaking them down into work segments that can be more effectively estimated in terms of costs and time frames and also supervised effectively (www.brighthub.com). The WBS has the advantage of listing out all the tasks that need to be completed in connection with the project and arranging them in a framework that allows the facility of viewing the entire project in an encapsulated form , wherein each sequence contains a list of tasks that fall into that particular category. The objective of this project is to set up an Irish bar in Rome, which not only offers food and drinks but also provides music and entertainment. The proposal seeks to develop this pub within premises that will be leased or purchased; however in either case, it would be necessary to make some structural and design changes in order to transform it

Technology Management Blog Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Technology Management Blog - Essay Example The book, Service Strategy explained that "in simplest sense, it [ROI] is the net profit of an investment divided by the net worth of the assets invested," and that "the resulting percentage is applied to either additional top-line revenue or the elimination of bottom-line cost." (TSO 2007, p. 112) It is easy, hence, to understand how in service management, ROI came to be considered as a benchmark to determine the ability of an organization to use assets in order to generate more value. For example, when financial managers develop and introduce a service to the market, there is no telling whether it can provide financial returns to the investment. Using ROI, however, the management can predict, examine and analyze product/service performance not just after service delivery but also early in the process, such as during the planning stage. What this means is that financial managers can either integrate value-added services or improve on existing ones depending on the stage of a given p roject or strategy. The above point is significant because service strategy is all about analyzing trends, looking at whether strategies, policy and standards introduced achieve their goal or are viable. (VHP 2007, p. 199) ROI can be crucial in several techniques to analyze trends and performance such as the Component Failure Impact Analysis, Fault Tree Analysis, Service Failure Analysis and so forth. Finally, ROI also plays an important part in identifying opportunities. This is demonstrated in the capacity management technique, which analyzes when which customer uses what services, how they use them and how this influences the performance of one or more systems or components. (VHP, p. 199) ROI enables managers to measure whether a product or service meet a specific or numerical criterion. A problem with the way ROI is used in financial management and in service strategy phase, particularly, is when ROI calculations are focused

Xia Qinggao Hsieh Ch'ing Kao Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Xia Qinggao Hsieh Ch'ing Kao - Essay Example He was very aware of English naval tradition, and sounded admiring of the rescue processes involved in helping those in need on the high seas, and the possibility of punishment for failing to carry out this duty. The tone, while factual, hinted that in China, similar rules for duty to others applied. He perceived that the English were great maritime traders, and by his own travels, we assume that China too was involved in this trade. That is confirmed by the writer's geographical knowledge (not always accurate) and the flags he observed flying from ships at sea; he must have been part of that trading tradition. His comments regarding smallpox quarantine in Portugal, and its purpose in disease prevention, are stated in a tone that allows us to infer that this would happen too in Chinese ports. With regard to the products and manufactured goods for all the countries mentioned, his awareness was based on knowledge, and such goods were more than likely available in China. He sounded impressed by the "fine system of waterworks" in London, and how easily families could access clean water, with a fair method of payment described. Such a facility might not have been freely available to all in China, judging by his tone and interest. He mentioned good routes by land and water in Portugal, good land routes in the Scandinavian countries, and the steamboat in America impressed him. Because he was so knowledgeable about transportation, we can assume that good mechanisms existed in China, though it was unlikely that they had steam driven boats, as his description was rather inaccurate. In comparing climate, he mentioned only Portugal as being colder than "Fukien and Kwangtung", though England and Sweden would have been even colder. This tells us that parts of China were very hot. From his comment on "dwelling houses of more than one story" we can surmise that this was not the norm in China, where traditionally, one-story family dwellings were set around a courtyard with one main entrance gate. The detailed descriptions of clothing, and how it determined social class, suggested that it was very different in style from Chinese clothing, while drawing attention to the differences between what was worn by the rich and poor, similar to such class divisions in China. The European clothes were "tight fitting" at the top, so Chinese clothes must be less so. His comment on the English "Men and women all wear white ordinarily; for mourning, however, black is used." and this links to the idea of white being the mourning color in China. On pointing out that in Portugal, both genders wore leather shoes, he established that this was not the case in China. The loose skirts were different to Chinese female dress, we can surmise by his interest, but the custom of rich young noblewomen learning to sing and dance from an early age seemed to be a familiar practice, by his tone, and was part of Chinese culture. When describing Portugal's royal family structure and succession issues, "the king does not take a new reign title, but follows the

Christian view Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Christian view - Essay Example The process of creation of the world is described in the Book of Genesis. It features main elements, like Days of Creation, as well as aftermath such as life of Adam and Eve. However, this text also has some important implications for the contemporary Christians. Thus, it was argued that â€Å"the notion that humanity has the â€Å"responsibility† to exercise care over the earth from its higher position often results not so much in â€Å"stewardship† that guards the earth as in domination and exploitation† (Chopp and Taylor 6). Indeed, other than being the most perfect creature, a human being is a creature with â€Å"responsibility†. Some might go as far as saying that the concept of the Original Sin should be focused on exclusively on eating the fruits of the forbidden tree, but rather on abandoning the above mentioned â€Å"responsibility†.Creation and the TrinityAs it often happens in the Bible some earlier parts of it are related to the later on e. In other words, the Bible is a set of interconnected books, though they were written in different times. That is why some scholars point that there is a strong relationship between Genesis which is the first book of the Bible and the doctrine of Trinity which is something that appeared much later. For example, it is explained that â€Å"Creator, Redeemer, and Sustainer [the Three Persons of the Holy Trinity]†¦ these terms refer †¦ to God’s relations with the creation† (Hanson 42). In other words, one of the characteristic features of God the Father was the creation of the world.

Education vs. Non-Education Essay Example for Free

Education vs. Non-Education Essay There are two important stories called, Front Seat Brahman and Teachers of Import that have a common conflict. That common conflict is education vs. non-education. The character in Front Seat Brahman is Sushil Rao. He is from Bombay, India. The characters in The Teachers of Import are Amarel Collymore and Elke Walcher. Amarel is from Bridgetown, Barbados and Elke is from Austria. They all moved to Queens, New York for a particular reason. Sushil did not mention whether or not he went to elementary or high school. However, from the story it sounds like he took school lightly compared to Amarel and Elke. Sushil states, I went away to agriculture college to learn how to be a farmer, but they made me dissect frogs in a botany class so I quite. So I enrolled in a philosophy college. A year later, my father died and I was kind of out of control. I quite college and became a traveling hippie (Lehrer/ Sloan, 32). This proves that he did try to go to college, but was not dedicated enough to finish college. He thought there were better opportunities and prospects out in the world than just going to college. That was not the case for Amarel and Elke. Amarel was a college graduate and taught high school English. She had decades of teaching experience and decided to come to New York. Elke was also a college graduate and taught science. Both teachers came to teach in New York because there was a shortage of teachers and the New York City Board of Education was looking to recruit teachers from different countries. Amarel was not used to the students behavior the first week of classes. She states, In Barbados, if a student acts up, they get put out the door right away. When I first started teaching here I thought the kids were raging all the time. Then I figured out its just normal for them to curse and swear (Lehrer/ Sloan, 55). This shows the differences between the way students act in Barbados vs. America. I think American students, depending on the school though; have very low respect for their teachers compared to certain countries. Elke had a different experience. She said, Its a prejudice Europeans have against blacks anyways. The movies give the impression that all blacks are criminals and they all live in the Bronx. I couldnt believe the class was half black. Most of the guys are wearing gang jackets and bandanas (Lehrer/ Sloan, 59). This proves that Elke was in for a big surprise and they were not like the Austrian students that she was used to. Sushil was more of a spiritual person rather than educational. For example Sushil says, You can live without food for days at a time. But water you need almost every four hours. Water is like diamonds. Our life depends on it (Lehrer/ Sloan, 36)! People know they cannot live without water, but I have never heard anyone phrase is quite like that. This shows that Sushil is such a deep and meaningful man. Sushil has such a great view of life and appreciates it so much more than the average American. The two teachers and Sushil make the education vs. non-education conflict have some similarities and differences. The two teachers take such great pride in their work as teachers. Just as Sushil takes pride in sharing his stories with people, cooking and his publishing company. He did not need college to succeed like Amarel and Elke, but the women definitely make education a big part of their lives. These are just two different views these people have. In a way, Sushil was teaching the people in the cabs about his country and his beliefs, just as the two teachers teacher their students. Sushil does not mention how education is portrayed in India, but according to Amarel and Elke teachers are very well respected and getting an education is very highly though of. The two teachers were not sure they wanted to stay in New York or go back home and teach. In the end, they did both want to stay. Amarel concludes with, Ive gotten accustomed to these kids. The Lord brought me here for something. I am not yet sure what it is. I know now if I hate to, I could teach anywhere. But Id like to teach here again next year if I can (Lehrer/ Sloan, 57). Elke concludes with, Teaching is a calling. If you do it just for the money you wont last. Especially in New York. Some of the teachers look at me like Im nuts whenever I talk with great enthusiasm for teaching (Lehrer/ Sloan, 61). This show that both teachers are now getting used to the idea that they can help these students and teach them to respect teachers more. They both succeeded in the end. Sushil also succeeded even though he did not go to college and education was not a part of his life. He was starting to make dinners for his friend and all his friends. Then Sushil and his friend started up a publishing company together. That proved he did not need a professional education. He was poetic and creative and that made him a success.

Psychology Paper Essay Example for Free

Psychology Paper Essay In this paper I am going to be talking about the philosophy of psychology in the 19th century. I am going to be discussing the roots in early philosophy leading into the 19th century that influenced the development of modern psychology, identify philosophers that historically relate to the beginnings of psychology as a formal discipline, identify major philosophers in the western tradition that were primary contributors to the formation of psychology as a discipline and explore the development of the science of psychology during the 19th century. There were several philosophers that historically relate to the beginnings psychology as a formal discipline. John Locke, George Berkeley, David Hume and John Stuart Mill are just a few to mention. John Locke made a distinction between simple and complex. â€Å"Simple ideas resulted from experiencing basic sensory qualities such as yellow, white, heat and so on, and from making simple reflections such as â€Å"pleasant.† A complex idea includes sever ideas, which can be a combination of simple and other complex ideas. Complex ideas are compounds and can be ultimately reduced to simple ones, much as chemical compounds are composed of simple elements.† (Goodwin, 2008). George Berkeley’s work on vision was the first systematic example of how empiricist thinking could be applied to the study of perception. Berkeley tried to show that our perceptions of the distance, size, and locations of objects are judgments that depend entirely on experience. We do not see objects directly; rather we make judgments about them based on visual information and our experiences. Davie Hume came up with the rules of association, that ideas that are similar or happen simultaneously are associated. He proposed three laws: resemblance, contiguity, and cause and effect. David Hartley, another dualist, believed that although the mind and body operated separately but also parallel to each other. He used association in his theory of memories. He believed the â€Å"strength of association relies on repetition† (Goodwin, 2008). John Stuart Mill, known as the â€Å"key transition figure in the shift from the philosophy of the mind to the science of the mind† (Goodwin, 2008), used a chemical rather than mechanical description in our complex ideas are made from simple ones. He believed that the mind was much more active than passive. Mill’s logic consists of the Method of Agreement, Method of Difference, and Joint Method.

Case study: The Treatment of Depression

Case study: The Treatment of Depression Although depression has been recognized as a clinical syndrome for over 2000 years, as yet, no completely satisfactory explanation of its puzzling and paradoxical features has been found. There are still major unresolved issues regarding its nature, its classification and its etiology. (Beck and Alford, 2009, p3) However, the importance of depression is recognised by everyone in the field of mental health. According to Kline, more human suffering has resulted from depression than from any other single disease affecting mankind. (Kline, 1964) Hammen (Hammen,1997,p3) states that the term depression is used in everyday language to describe a range of experiences from a slightly noticeable and temporary mood decrease to a profoundly impaired and even life-threatening disorder. The severity of depression is generally defined according to the number of symptoms present, the severity of the symptoms and the severity of the associated functional impairment or distress. (Whisman, 2008, p66). This is done by health professionals using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), a publication where each mood disorder is characterised by a unique set of symptoms or diagnostic criteria which are split into 4 areas: Affective Behavioral Cognitive Somatic The Cost of Depression Government advisor, Lord Layard, worked on a report back in 2004 that outlined mental illness as the biggest social problem facing Britain today. (Layard, 2004) The report pointed to the Psychiatric Morbidity Survey, which suggested that one in six British people would be diagnosed with depression or anxiety at some point in their lives. Yet only one in four of people with emotional disorders receive proper treatment. It imposes heavy costs on the economy (some 2% of GDP) and on the Exchequer (again some 2% of GDP). There are now more mentally ill people drawing incapacity benefits than there are unemployed people on Jobseekers Allowance. Mental illness matters because it causes massive suffering to patients and their families, because it prevents them contributing fully to society, and because it imposes heavy costs on taxpayers. (Layard, 2004). A UK wide strategy to help people with depression was required. The vehicle for this was through the NHS. In September 2007, the UK government launched the biggest state-funded mental health initiative ever. It pledged  £170 million to create a ground-breaking therapy service in Britain, according to health minister Alan Johnson. The service was to include 3,500 extra psychological therapists trained in CBT to be found and trained by 2011. (Evans, 2007). What is CBT? CBT (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy) is the treatment of choice within the NHS for depression. According to The Royal College of Psychiatrists (2010); CBT is a form of psychotherapy which involves: How you think about yourself, the world and other people How what you do affects your thoughts and feelings CBT was developed by Dr Beck, a psychiatrist at the University of Pennsylvania in the early 1960s. Dr Beck had previously studied and practiced psychoanalysis. He designed and carried out a number of experiments to test psychoanalytic concepts on depression. Fully expecting research would validate these fundamental precepts, he was surprised to find the opposite. Beck Institute website (1999-2009) This research led him to begin to look for other ways of conceptualizing depression. Working with depressed patients, he found that they experienced streams of negative thoughts that seemed to pop up spontaneously. He termed these cognitions automatic thoughts, and discovered that their content fell into three categories: negative ideas about themselves, the world and the future. He began helping patients identify and evaluate these thoughts and found that by doing so, patients were able to think more realistically, which led them to feel better emotionally and behave more functionally. (Beck Institute 1999 2009). According to the NHS Choice website (2010) Cognitive Behavioral Therapy differs from most other types of psychotherapies because it is: Pragmatic Highlight structured Focused on current problems Collaborative Cognitive behavioral treatments are developed with particular cognitive contents in mind they are disorder specific. (Scott, 2009, p2) Depression: Cognitive Therapy For people with persistent subthreshold depressive symptoms or mild to moderate depression, consider offering one or more of the following interventions, guided by the persons preference: Individual guided self-help based on the principles of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) Computerised cognitive behavioural therapy (CCBT) A structured group physical activity programme Drug treatment Do not use antidepressants routinely to treat persistent subthreshold depressive symptoms or mild depression because the risk-benefit ratio is poor, but consider them for people with: a past history of moderate or severe depression or initial presentation of subthreshold depressive symptoms that have been present for a long period (typically at least 2 years) or subthreshold depressive symptoms or mild depression that persist(s) after other interventions. For Those with Moderate or Severe Depression: For people with moderate or severe depression, medical practitioners are advised to provide a combination of antidepressant medication and a high-intensity psychological intervention (CBT or IPT). (NICE Guidelines 2009) The Royal College of Psychiatrists (2010) highlight the medication used within the NHS for the treatment of depression to include: Tricyclics MAOIs SSRIs SNRIs NASSAs Although medication can help lift the patients mood, it does not tackle any underlying problems they may be experiencing. There are also various known side effects to the medication including abdominal pain, nausea, headache, suicidal thoughts, constipation, blurred vision to name but a few. People react differently to different drugs, so until they try them they are unable to know if they will have a negative impact on them. Psychological therapies can help patients to explore what may have contributed to their depression in the first place, and what might be keeping them depressed. (Depression Alliance UK, 2010) CBT can be done individually or with a group of people. It can also be done from a self-help book or computer programme. Unfortunately, in many parts of the country, there are long waiting lists for CBT and sometimes people end up going to private therapists instead of waiting to see an NHS appointed therapist. The Benefits of CBT in the Treatment of Depression The Royal College of Psychiatrists (2009) state that: CBT is one of the most effective treatments for conditions where anxiety or depression is the main problem. It can help patients break the vicious cycle of altered thinking, feeling and behaviour. It is the most effective psychological treatment for moderate and severe depression. It is as effective as antidepressants for many types of depression. This is also supported by Townend, Grant, Mulhern and Short (2009, p 254) who state that CBT remains the psychological therapy with the widest and broadest evidence base. This is also backed by (Gabbard, Beck and Holmes, 2007, p115), CBT has been demonstrated to be an effective treatment for depression in the large number of studies that have accumulated since the original study by Rush et al (1977). They go on to say that CBT produces a greater improvement in symptoms than no treatment or waiting list controls (Dobson 1989) and demonstrates equivalent efficacy as pharmacotherapy for depression. This is also further supported by (Freeman and Power, 2007, p30) who state, There have been numerous randomised clinic trials that support the efficacy and effectiveness of cognitive therapy for depression, across a variety of clinical settings and populations (for review, see Clark, Beck and Alford 1999; De Rubeis and Crits-Christophe 1998; Dobson 1999; Robinson,Berman and Neimeyer 1990) (Freeman and Power, 2007,p30). According to (Ingram, 2009, p174) In the acute treatment phase, combination therapy, consisting of medication and CBT, has been found to be superior to either medication or CBT used alone for patients with more severe, recurrent or chronic forms of depression. (Gabbard, Beck and Holmes, 2007, p115), state that One of the main potential benefits of CBT for depression is that it reduces relapse / recurrence to a greater extent than antidepressant medication. Today, CBT remains the gold standard for the treatment of depression with psychotherapy (Wasmer-Andrews, 2009, p3). The Limitations of CBT in the Treatment of Depression However, although highly praised, CBT does have its limitations and indeed its critics. In terms of limitations, these are set out below: To benefit from CBT, the patient needs to commit themselves to the process. A therapist can help and advise, but cannot make someones problems go away without the patients co-operation (NHS Choices, 2010). Therefore, the patient needs to be open to CBT and play their part in their recovery, including taking a full part in each therapy and doing their homework in order to recover from depression. This is also highlighted by the Royal College of Psychiatrists (2009) who state that CBT is not a quick fix. A therapist is like a personal trainer that advises and encourages but cannot do it for a patient. If a patient is feeling low, it can be difficult for them to concentrate and get motivated. (Royal College of Psychiatrists,2009) Because of the structured nature of CBT, it may not be suitable for people who have more complex mental health needs or learning difficulties. (NHS Choices, 2010) This is further supported by (Wasmer-Andrews, 2009, p3) who states that CBT has limitations for treating certain groups, including people with treatment-resistant depression and those with both depression and a personality disorder. Critics of CBT argue that because the therapy only addresses current problems and focuses on very specific issues, it does not address the possible underlying causes of mental health conditions, such as an unhappy childhood. (NHS Choices, 2010). This is something that could be achieved using a Diagnostic Scan under hypnosis, if hypno-psychotherapy could be used instead. CBT focuses on the individuals capacity to change themselves (their thoughts, feelings and behaviours), and does not address wider problems in systems or families that often have a significant impact on an individuals health and wellbeing. (NHS Choices, 2010) The Royal College of Psychiatrists (2009) state that For severe depression, CBT should be used with antidepressant medication. When a patient is very low, they may find it hard to change the way they think until the antidepressants have started to make them feel better. Critics of CBT in the Treatment of Depression Critics of CBT, as with all clinical theories, vary depending on the thoughts of the analyst. Townend, Grant, Mulhern and Short (2009, p 254) point to many of these discussions. Specific issues have been raised over the necessity of, for example, challenging thoughts in CBT (Longmore and Worrell, 2007); and cognitive interventions in severe depression (Dimidjian et al, 2006). Additionally, there is still ongoing discussion (e.g. Gilbert and Leahy, 2007) about the nature an impact of the therapeutic alliance as causes of the changes seen in CBT. Weiner, Freedheim and Stricker (2003) point out that Although the scope and efficacy of CBT are impressive, much work needs to be done. In particular, future efforts of CBT clinical researchers must demonstrate the effective of treatments outside research centres as well as turn more attention towards disorders overlooked by CBT (e.g. personality disorder). Kotler and Shepard (2008) highlight that human beings are multi-faceted, with feelings as well as thoughts. It is suggested that CBT puts undue emphasis on thought processes to the exclusion of many legitimate feelings, thereby contributing to repression and the denial of feeling. They go on to highlight some other criticism leveled at CBT as follows: CBT is less effective with some kinds of clients those who have a problem with overintellectualising or those who dont have the capacity to reason logically, or clients with minimal intelligence (e.g. young children, very old people, schizophrenics and those with other personality disorders). Many CBT therapists complain of boredom and burnout from continuously repeating the same arguments and processes with all clients. CBT is difficult for some people for some professionals to practice if they are not outgoing and assertive and dont enjoy vigorous debate and confrontation. Because the therapists role is so verbal, active and direct, the client may feel overpowered, dominated and not responsible for the outcome. (Kotler and Shepard, 2008) The Debate There is much debate on the subject of CBT as a treatment for depression within the NHS. Oliver James article (James, 2006) sumarises much of this debate. He indicates that Depression and anxiety costs the (British) economy  £17 billion per year. Being cheap, quick (15 20 sessions) and simplistic, CBT appeals to the Government. In fact, in June 2006, Professor Richard Layard labeled the government happiness tsar claimed that CBT can lift at least half of those affected out of their depression or their chronic fear. (James, 2006) Another attraction for the government is that CBT aims to get you to a point where you can do all this on your own and tackle problems without the help of a therapist. (NHS Choices, 2010). Thereby, it is argued that using CBT could reduce the future costs of treatment in current users. In addition, there are also now computerised CBT approved for use by the NHS Beating the Blues which has been approved for the treatment of depression. (NHS Choices, 2010). Again, this is a cost effective treatment for some people who find they prefer using a computer rather than talking to a therapist about their private feelings. (NHS Choices, 2010) In a follow up article, in March 2009 (James, 2009) resurrected the debate when he reported that CBT is not a real cure, just a form of personal spin. He went on to argue that work by eminent US psychologist, Professor Drew Weston found that after two years, two thirds of those who had CBT for depression has relapsed or sought further help. It is important for patients to keep practicing their CBT skills, even after they are feeling better. There is some research that suggests CBT may be better than antidepressants at preventing depression coming back. (The Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2009) James (2009) went on to argue that If given no treatment, most people with depression drift in and out of it. After 18 months, those given CBT have no better mental health than ones who have been untreated. On the other hand, in the same article by James (2009), Derek Draper a CBT practitioner and author states that CBT draws on the obvious truth that how we feel is inextricably linked to the way we think and behave. It isnt remotely sinister and is rather simple and it works. Many of my patients have been helped by CBT. New Research According to the Royal College of Psychiatrists website (2009) Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is most effective in patients who have had four or more prior episodes of depression, according to new research from The Netherlands. The study, published in the December issue of the British Journal of Psychiatry, suggests GPs could use the number of prior episodes to determine which patients are likely to benefit most from therapy and prescribe treatment accordingly). In another recent study, a comparison of a cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) website with an information website for depression has found that after 6 months only the CBT website was significantly effective in reducing symptoms. After 1 year, both interventions were significantly better than no intervention (control condition). Research has shown that internet-delivered brief CBT may be effective in reducing depression, but it has not been clear whether these gains are maintained over time. The aim of this Australian study, published in the February 2008 issue of the British Journal of Psychiatry, was to see whether the benefits of internet-delivered brief psychoeducation and CBT were still there 6 and 12 months later, compared with a control condition, in which participants were asked questions about their lifestyle. Summary In summary, CBT is the treatment of choice in the NHS for moderate to severe depression and having reviewed all of the benefits and limitation, read from the critics and the ambassadors, the writer feels that there is still much to learn and evaluate in the treatment of depression. Whilst the results so far have appeared to show that CBT is very effective in the treatment of moderate to severe depression, there are large groups of people that will not benefit from this treatment, e.g. young children, those with personality disorders, late-life depression suffers. The writer suggests that there is not a universally acceptable treatment for all that some treatments will work for some people with some therapists and other treatments will work for others with another therapist the willingness of the client to seek help, play their part in their recovery alongside their chosen therapy will help some of the people, some of the time. But what about in the longer term ? Is this a sticking plaster over a gaping wound ? CBT can help in the here and now, but relapses can occur as the root of the problem if it is in the past is not usually discussed in a CBT session, which is focussed on the present. While the costs of depression to individuals, families and businesses are huge, the writer feels that the government, through the NHS has made very positive steps to try to assist people living with depression by welcoming the use the talking therapies. As more studies are commissioned in the future, new information will be gained and new decisions made based on this. For the moment, embracing the talking therapies is a very good step in the right direction and it is hoped that other therapies will continue to be evaluated so that patients of the future would have a choice of talking therapies, including CBT, but also others like life coaching, NLP and hypno-psychotherapy. Word count (3,337)

Sales Employees Training Essay -- Train Job Work Sales Essays

Sales Employees Training ABC Broom Company in Bombay, India needs a training program created for its new salesmen. These salesmen are in their early 20’s and are high school graduates. These salesmen are not meeting their sales goals but would like to because of the financial bonus. These salesmen have no prior sales experience before entering the training program. Based on the feasibility analysis for the training, a plan consisting of lecture, group discussions, role playing, and a mentoring program will be implemented. It is best to use a combination of methods to deliver the training. Each method may help to enhance the other (Hannum & Hansen, 1989). The choice of instructional methods is dependent upon the type of learning objectives, the characteristics of learners, the instructional conditions, and the evidence of instructional effectiveness. A learning objective makes clear the intended learning outcome or product of instruction, rather than what form the instruction will take. Objectives focus on student performance. The types of learning outcomes that are expected are attitudinal learning, and intellectual learning (problem solving and application). The employees are from Bombay, India. India has a caste system which each employee is aware. The caste system has supposedly been demolished, but research has shown that it is still present within the culture. Trainees do not need to be briefed on the caste system. The employees were raised in India and are well aware of the differences between castes. Each trainee will bring to the training sessions their own prejudices, experiences, and learning styles. While each learning style cannot be taken into consideration, the trainers will attempt to teach to the mean (Sheppard, 1998). The Indian culture is unique in that an Indian person will attempt to learn everything about someone on the first visit (Matthew, 1996). This may be a potential problem for the salesmen. It is viewed as a process of establishing a relationship with the person to whom they are speaking. The salesmen may not be able to establish a relationship with the client in enough time as specified by the company to make a sale. This fact will be considered and discussed at the group seminars. The training program will begin with a lecture to present the information that the employees need to learn. This information will... ...of Instruction. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson. Erffmeyer, Robert c. & Johnson, Dale A. (1997). The future of sales training: making choices among six different education methods. The Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing. Vol. 12, Iss. 3/4, pp. 185. Harbour, Jerry L. (1998). Does the Trainee Know Best? Training and Development, June, Vol. 46, Iss. 6, pp. 66. Hannum, Wallace., & Hansen, Carol. (1989). Instructional Systems Development in Large Organizations. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Educational Technology Publications, Inc. Honey, Peter. (2003). How do you decide what methods to use when designing a training program? Training Journal, Jan, pp. 7. Mathew, Matt. (1996). A Tale of Two Cultures. StylusInc. www.stylusinc.com/business/india/cultural_tip1.htm. Ray, Julie A.(2004). Effective Teaching Strategies in Higher Education. Phi Kappa Phi Forum. Vol. 84, Iss. 4, pp. 58. Shepard, Clive. (1998). A process for selecting training methods. FastTrak consulting, www.fastack-consulting.co.uk. Sindell, Milo T. (2002). How to Make Smart Decisions About Training. Training and Development, Vol. 56, Iss. 4, pp. 86.

Video Games Are Not Destroying Our Children Essay -- Parents Are The P

Many parents today say that video games are dangerous to their children because they increase the risk of childhood obesity and exposure to violence. I believe that this statement is both viable and completely ludicrous at the same time. Out of the many topics that I can argue on, I believe that I can argue this one the best. I am going to reveal the deeper meaning that lies buried underneath the controversy that presents itself in this subject. I have witnessed many outcomes that are associated with this beloved form of entertainment. I have personal experience with video games and what impact they might have on children who play them without proper constraints. Everyone either agrees or disagrees with this topic one way or another. For me, this topic does not just hold a black or white side. For me, this topic is a shade of grey with a tint of underlying red that no one arguing this subject takes the time to look deep enough to see. What we have here are two valid arguments, which stretch out like the branches of a tree, with the trunk of this tree being the children, but the most important part of this tree are the parents, which are the roots: the reason, the cause for everything. We are going to take a closer look at these two points of view and analyze the deeper meaning, and then we can decide where we stand. Adults say that video games are expanding children’s waistlines and subjecting them to an increased amount of violence because kids spend most of their time nowadays playing said games. However, this one fact remains overlooked that may possibly be the most important for adults everywhere; parents have the ability and the right to choose what is best for their children. This conclusion is so mundane and disregarde... ..., richer, more productive lives. Bibliography: 1-3 Video Games Boost Visual Skills, Study Finds By John Roach for National Geographic News: May 28, 2003 http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/05/0528_030528_videogames.html 1 John Roach (writer for Discover magazine) 2 Daphne Bavelier (an associate professor of brain and cognitive sciences at the University of Rochester) 3 National Geo. Paragraph 8 excerpt 4-5 Surgeons May Error Less by Playing Video Games: Three hours a week decreases mistakes by 37 percent By Verena Dobnik for Associated Press April 7, 2004 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4685909/ns/technology_and_science-games/ 4 Dr. James â€Å"Butch† Rosser (study subject in the Beth Israel Medical Center experiment) 5 Kurt Squire (University of Wisconsin researcher of video game effects on learning)

Free Richard III Essays: The Power of Seduction :: Richard II Richard III Essays

Richard III: The Power of Seduction The word "seduce" according to Webster's Dictionary means to "tempt and draw away from proper conduct." This is exactly what Richard, Duke of Gloucester/King Richard III accomplishes in Richard III. In Richard's life he does not only move from deformed "hedgehog" to husband, but from "beast" to King. One may ask how such deeds were performed. However, a second look may make the deeds look simple. Richard demonstrated a strong power of seduction throughout the play that not only seduced Lady Anne, but many others. Richard's first conquest by seduction was Lady Anne. In the passage where Anne accused Gloucter of being the cause of her husband's death (I.ii.120-21), Gloucter replies not denying that he was the agent that caused the death. However, he follows by saying to Anne, "Your beauty was the cause of that effect" (I.ii.121). He continues using the excuse that her beauty caused everything. Finally, he actually admits that he killed Anne's husband, but in the same breath he says she caused it. "I did kill King Henry--/[b]ut 'twas thy beauty that provoked me" (I.ii.179-80). This seemingly sick and twisted style of persuasion works in seducing the spitting Lady Anne into becoming his wife. Obviously, by Anne taking the same hand in marriage that killed her former husband; one can see that she was "drawn away from proper conduct." Rhe citizens were also seduced by Richard. However, in Act III.vii. his wits alone did not work the persuasion. He had help from the Bishops, props and Buchingham. The Mayor exclaims to the citizens,"See where his Grace stands, 'tween two clergymen!" (III.vii.95). This is all part of Richard's goodly act. He wants to win the people by being a noble and good man. He wants them to believe that he is not only a moral man, but a modest one. Buchingham proceeds in supporting Richard in this attempt. Buchingham observes Richard and states to the people: Two props of virtue for a Christian prince, To stay him from the fall o vanity; And see, a book of prayer in his hands- True ornaments to know a holy man. (III.vii.96-99). Richard sways the citizens much differently than he persuaded Anne. He persuaded Anne by reminding her that his fault was caused by her beauty. One may say he was playing with her emotions.

The Components of an Information System

The Components of an Information System A system is a group of components that work together to achieve a purpose. There are five components that make up an information system. The five components are Hardware, Software, Data, Procedures, and People. These five components make up every information system from the smallest system to the most complex system. The first component is the hardware, which are electronic components and related gadgetry that input, process, output, store, and communicate data according to the instructions encoded in computer programs or software.The second component is the software, which are the instructions for computers. The third component is Data, which are recorded facts or figures. The fourth components are procedures, which are instructions for humans to follow when working within an information system. The last components are the people that are involved. This includes those who operate and service the computers, those who maintain the data, those wh o support the networks, and those who use the system.All of these components make up an Information System. These five components together make up the Five Component framework, which are the five fundamental components of an information system. First you will need the hardware in order to start off your system. Then you must use the software in order to run you hardware. After you have set up your hardware and loaded up the software to run it, you will need data to input into your hardware.Once you have your data ready you will need procedures set in play to properly store your data within the system, and last you will need people in order to put in the data and keep the system up and running properly at all times. As you can see, you will need every component in order to ensure that you have a functional running information system Reference: Kroenke, D. M. (2013). Using MIS (5th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Communication Management Challenges in Construction Project Execution

Go Up to remit of Contents Go To Chapter 2 (Organizing for compute focal point) The Owners Perspective induction The rove animation wheel around study Types of affectionate organisation pickaxe of Professional operate facial expression Contr feators pay of Constructed Facilities Legal and regulatory Requirements The Changing surround of the complex body situation exertion The Role of coif pop in Managers References Foot nones 1. The Owners Perspective 1. 1 Introduction ilk the five fraud men encountering sev geological eral(prenominal)(predicate) parts of an elephant, apiece of the numerous participants in the mystify of home fiddle, fareledgeablenessing, backing, pass watering and direct somatic facilities has a distinguishable persuasion on factualise cin one casern for grammatical verbalism. alter fellowship dejectionful be very(prenominal) beneficial, especi t come on ensembley in cock-a-hoop and involved thrusts, since exper ts in mixed specialties arse burn valuable range. However, it is opportune to interpret how the dispa swan parts of the c over fit together. Waste, unwarranted bell and delays wad emergence from woeful coordination and communication among specialists.It is circumstanti t come out of the closet ensembley in the touch on of proprietors to insure that ofttimes(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) tasks do not occur. And it behooves wholly participants in the surgery to listen the involvements of possessors beca frugal consumption, in the conclusion, it is the proprietors who altogetherow the resources and c whole the shots. By adopting the bandstand of the proprietors, we rout out tenseness our solicitude on the accomplished surgical procedure of confexercising forethought for executeed facilities earlier than the diachronical roles of mingled specialists much(prenominal)(prenominal) as syllabusners, architects, employ scientisting ima geers, constructors, fabricators, cloth suppliers, monetary analysts and oppo situate(a)s.To be sure, distributively differentiation has do important advances in developing sassy-sprung(prenominal)fangled techniques and tools for streamlined implementation of kink vaga trammels. However, it is done the intellectual of the spotless process of draw focusing that these specialists croupe move much in upshot to the possessors confides for their operate, in tradeing their specialties, and in better the productiveness and theatrical role of their score. The introduction of advanced(a) and more than than(prenominal)(prenominal) telling proposal reign overment for edifice is not an academic exercise.As reported by the social organization Indus probe Cost intensity level Project of the barter Roundtable 1 By green consensus and each usable measure, the unify States no thirster gets its moneys worth in braid, the nations bragging(a)st pati ence The spook erosion of gimmick energy and productiveness is naughty in the buffs for the entire U. S. economy. complex body part is a speci whollyy seminal diligence. The name of every ingredienty, index twist, hotel or exponent nominate that is reinforced come tos the price that essential be charged for the dear(p)s or help ups breakd in it or by it.And that effect globally persists for decades as well as much of the effort remains te at that placed to the past, partly by inertia and partly by past divisions Improvement of envision trouble not solely send word aid the mental synthesis assiduity, sole(prenominal) whitethorn besides be the engine for the case and world economy. However, if we ar to bear important utilitys, we essential archetypal beneathstand the gimmick fabrication, its operating purlieu and the institutional constraints affect its activities as risespring as the personality of protrude instruction . sanction to t adoptge 1. 2 The Project bearing Cycle The erudition of a constructed quick-wittedness ordinarily re represents a major(ip)(ip)(ip) not bad(p) enthronization, whether its possessor happens to be an individual, a off typify corpo ration or a interior(a) agency. Since the commitment of resources for such an investing is conk out by trade demands or comprehend of necessity, the adeptness is evaluate to satisfy veritable objectives within the constraints specify by the proprietor and relevant regulations.With the exception of the speculative hold securities industry, where the sojournntial units whitethorn be sell as strengthened by the real land developer, intimately constructed facilities atomic number 18 consumption made in consultation with the proprietors. A real the three estates developer whitethorn be regarded as the stag of reaching take ins, as much as a presidential term agency whitethorn be the browse of a humanity thrust and turns it everyplace to an diametric governing unit upon its extent. From the viewpoint of flip guidance, the equipment casualty possessor and buy at ar correspondent beca habituate both induce the supreme permission to make all important decisions.Since an possessor is essentially getting a rapidness on a promise in al around social class of agreement, it allow for be wise for both proprietor to halt a web understanding of the acquisition process in disposition to hold up starchy visualise of the timbre, meterliness and salute of the undefiled installment. From the stead of an proprietor, the discombobulate tiltl round for a constructed easiness whitethorn be illustrated schematically in strain 1-1. Essentially, a job is conceived to meet market demands or needs in a judgment of convicti however fashion. heterogeneous possibilities whitethorn be considered in the abstract be after gift, and the technical and sparing feasiblen ess of each pick get out be assessed and compargond in order to consume the outstrip possible render. The monetary backing escapes for the proposed alternatives must withal be examined, and the go steady lead be programmed with reckon to the measure for its shutting and for operating roomal cash flows. later on the scope of the project is clearly defined, small engine room visualize forget try the blueprint for social agreement, and the definitive equal portend go forthing march as the creationline for live delay.In the procural and complex body part show, the delivery of corporals and the erecting of the project on situation must be c befull planned and controlled. later the look is completed, there is comm scarcely a brief ut well-nigh of start-up or shake-down of the constructed forwardness when it is jump occupied. Finally, the anxiety of the facility is burncelled over to the owner for full occupancy until the facility lives out its sub enactmentful sprightliness and is initiationated for demolition or conversion. general anatomy 1-1 The Project Life Cycle of a Constructed installmentOf course, the stages of cultivation in Figure 1-1 whitethorn not be strictly sequential. just close(prenominal) of the stages require iteration, and others whitethorn be carried out in match or with imbrication epoch frames, depending on the nature, coat and prod of the project. Furthermore, an owner whitethorn guide in-ho ace-valued function capacities to detention the ply in every stage of the entire process, or it may examine maestro advice and function for the fit in all stages. Understandably, to the spicyest academic degree owners choose to ac court roughly of the melt down in-house and to announcement out-of-door headmaster run for other components of the flow as needed.By exadigging the project disembodied spirit cycle from an owners perspective we stub focus on the veracious rol es of conf utilize activities and participants in all stages regard little of the take awayual ar cast offments for several(predicate) shellcasts of play. In the coupled States, for example, the U. S. Army army corps of Engineers has in-house capabilities to bundle with planning, budgeting, approach pattern, formulation and exercise of waterway and flood control structures. Other existence agencies, such as state cargo ships departments, argon to a fault deeply mired in all phases of a social organisation project.In the one-on-one sector, rough erect faithfuls such as DuPont, Exxon, and IBM ar becomingly staffed to carry out nearly activities for base expansion. solely these owners, both prosaic and insular, use outside agents to a great or little(prenominal)er degree when it travels more expedient to do so. The project animation cycle may be viewed as a process through and through which a project is implemented from cradle to grave. This process is practically very complex however, it toilette be crumbled into several stages as signald by the usual outline in Figure 1-1. The solutions at unhomogeneous stages be thusly interconnected to obtain the final outcome.Although each stage requires different expertise, it usually includes both adept and managing directorial activities in the knowledge land of the specialist. The owner may choose to decompose the entire process into more or less stages establish on the size and nature of the project, and thus obtain the about efficient result in implementation. real frequently, the owner retains direct control of work in the planning and programming stages, exactly progressively outside planners and financial experts be utilize as consultants because of the complexities of projects.Since cognitive operation and precaution of a facility give go on ache subsequently the consummation and live withation of a project, it is usually hardened as a separate proble m except in the consideration of the liveness cycle price of a facility. All stages from conceptual planning and feasibility studies to the acceptance of a facility for occupancy may be kindly lumped together and referred to as the Design/Construct process, epoch the procurement and kink alone argon traditionally regarded as the province of the body structure industry.Owners must recognize that there is no oneness best burn down in organizing project management throughout a projects life cycle. All organizational approaches put one over progressions and disadvantages, depending on the knowledge of the owner in turn management as well as the grammatical case, size and location of the project. It is important for the owner to be aw atomic number 18 of the approach which is most appropriate and beneficial for a particular project. In fashioning choices, owners should be pee-to doe with with the life cycle be of constructed facilities quite an than simply the initia l mental synthesis apostrophize. legal steer small cater forths of money during social system may not be worthwhile if the result is much thumpingr operating be or not meeting the useable requirements for the new facility satisfactorily. Thus, owners must be very concerned with the timberland of the spotless product as well as the cost of verbalism itself. Since facility operation and precaution is a part of the project life cycle, the owners expectation to satisfy investment objectives during the project life cycle will require consideration of the cost of operation and nutrition.Therefore, the facilitys operating management should also be considered as early as possible, bargonly as the mental synthesis process should be kept in mind at the early stages of planning and programming. support to authorise 1. 3 study Types of complex body part Since most owners are oecumenicly interested in acquiring only a specific role of constructed facility, they should be aw are of the common industrial confides for the emblem of edifice liable(p) to them. Likewise, the expression industry is a congeries of quite diverse segments and products. both(prenominal) owners may procure a constructed facility only once in a dour while and tend to look for hapless term advantages. However, more owners require outcomeical acquisition of new facilities and/or refilling of existing facilities. It is to their advantage to admit the body structure industry healthy and productive. Collectively, the owners fool more military unit to influence the face industry than they realize because, by their individual actions, they quite a little leave incentives or disincentives for innovation, efficiency and superior in bend.It is to the interest of all parties that the owners lay down an active interest in the face and exercise beneficial influence on the finishance of the industry. In planning for conglomerate types of device, the methods of procuring professional services, awarding braid contracts, and financial backing the constructed facility send word be quite different. For the purpose of discussion, the broad spectrum of constructed facilities may be classified into four major categories, each with its own characteristics. Residential living accommodations buildingResidential housing tress includes single-family houses, multi-family dwellings, and multistory apartments. During the training and twirl of such projects, the developers or sponsors who are familiar with the saying industry usually inspection and repair as substitution owners and take charge, making necessary contractual agreements for physical body and building, and arranging the financial backing and cut-rate sale of the completed structures. Residential housing figure of speechs are usually performed by architects and engineers, and the building put to death by builders who hire sub avowers for the structural, mechanized, electrical and othe r specialty work.An exception to this pattern is for single-family houses which may be knowing by the builders as well. The residential housing market is leaden affected by general stinting conditions, appraiseation laws, and the monetary and fiscal policies of the government. Often, a slight accession in tally demand will cause a substantial investment in winding, since just about housing projects quarter be started at different locations by different individuals and developers at the same age. Because of the relative ease of entry, at least at the commence end of the market, more another(prenominal) new builders are attracted to the residential housing social system.Hence, this market is super militant, with potentially high lay on the lines as well as high rewards. Figure 1-2 Residential Housing Construction (courtesy of Caterpillar, Inc. ) Institutional and Commercial braid Construction Institutional and commercial building construction encompasses a great mi xing of project types and sizes, such as schools and universities, medical examination clinics and hospitals, recreational facilities and sports stadiums, retail chain stores and large shopping c draw ins, warehouses and light manufacturing plants, and skyscrapers for mail services and hotels.The owners of such buildings may or may not be familiar with construction industry practices, supplyd they usually are able to select competent professional consultants and arrange the funding of the constructed facilities themselves. potency architects and engineers are oft pursue for radiation diagraming a specific type of building, while the builders or general af faithfulers set about such projects may also be specialized in only that type of building. Because of the higher costs and greater mundaneness of institutional and commercial buildings in analogy with residential housing, this market segment is share by fewer competitors.Since the construction of around of these buil dings is a long process which once started will take some time to proceed until effect, the demand is less exquisite to general frugal conditions than that for speculative housing. Consequently, the owners may confront an oligopoly of general declarers who compete in the same market. In an oligopoly situation, only a limited number of competitors exist, and a firms price for services may be based in part on its hawkish strategies in the expireical anesthetic market. Figure 1-3 Construction of the PPG Building in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (courtesy of PPG Industries, Inc. specialised Industrial Construction Specialized industrial construction usually involves very large scale projects with a high degree of expert complexity, such as fossil oil refineries, firebrand mills, chemical processing plants and coal-fired or nuclear power plants. The owners usually are deeply involved in the development of a project, and prefer to work with designers-builders such that the essentia l time for the completion of the project bottom of the inning be cut down. They also call for to pick a team of designers and builders with whom the owner has developed skinny work relations over the course of studys.Although the initiation of such projects is also affected by the state of the economy, long range demand forecasting is the most important factor since such projects are nifty intensive and require sizable amount of planning and construction time. political regulation such as the rulings of the environmental Protection Agency and the Nuclear regulative Commission in the coupled States put forward also profoundly influence decisions on these projects. Figure 1-4 Construction of a benzene Plant in Lima, Ohio (courtesy of Manitowoc Comp both, Inc. ) Infrastructure and severe ConstructionInfrastructure and heavy construction includes projects such as highways, mass passage systems, tunnels, bridges, pipelines, drainage systems and sewage treatment plants. or so of these projects are semi commonly owned and thence financed either through bonds or taxes. This division of construction is characterized by a high degree of mechanization, which has gradually replaced some lying-in intensive operations. The engineers and builders engage in foot construction are usually highly specialized since each segment of the market requires different types of skills.However, demands for different segments of infrastructure and heavy construction may shift with intensiveness in some segments. For example, as the available highway construction projects are declining, some heavy construction affirmers quickly move their work constrict and equipment into the demesne of mining where jobs are available. Figure 1-5 Construction of the razz Point noseband in Jacksonville, Florida (courtesy of bloody shame Lou Maher) abide to surmount 1. 4 weft of Professional Services When an owner decides to try professional services for the design and constructio n of a facility, he is confronted with a broad variety of choices.The type of services selected depends to a large degree on the type of construction and the experience of the owner in dealing with respective(a) professionals in the foregoing projects undertaken by the firm. Generally, several common types of professional services may be engaged either separately or in some combination by the owners. monetary training Consultants At the early stage of strategic planning for a capital project, an owner often desires the services of financial planning consultants such as at riddle public accounting (CPA) firms to evaluate the economic and financial feasibility of the constructed facility, peculiarly with see to arious readyings of federal, state and local anesthetic tax laws which may affect the investment decision. enthronement cusss may also be consulted on various options for financing the facility in order to analyze their semipermanent set up on the financial health of the owner organization. Architectural and engine room Firms Traditionally, the owner engages an architectural and engineering (A/E) firm or puddle as technical consultant in developing a preliminary design. subsequently the engineering design and financing arrangements for the project are completed, the owner will enter into a construction contract with a general affirmer either through competitive compressding or negotiation. The general contractile organ will act as a constructor and/or a coordinator of a large number of subcontractile organs who perform various specialties for the completion of the project. The A/E firm completes the design and may also provide on site quality inspection during construction. Thus, the A/E firm acts as the prepare professional on behalf of the owner and supervises the construction to insure competent results.This practice is most common in building construction. In the past twain decades, this traditional approach has become less popula r for a number of reasons, in particular for large scale projects. The A/E firms, which are engaged by the owner as the prime professionals for design and inspection, spend a penny become more isolated from the construction process. This has occurred because of pressures to fall fees to A/E firms, the little terror of litigation regarding construction defects, and lack of knowledge of new construction techniques on the part of architect and engineering professionals.Instead of preparing a construction plan along with the design, legion(predicate) A/E firms are no longer responsible for the details of construction nor do they provide plosive consonantic bowl inspection in many cases. As a matter of fact, such firms will place a prominent disavowal of responsibilities on any shop drawings they may check, and they will often regard their representatives in the field as observers sooner of inspectors. Thus, the A/E firm and the general contractor on a project often become antag onists who are looking after their own competing interests.As a result, flat the constructibility of some engineering designs may become an issue of contention. To carry this protective pose to the extreme, the specifications prepared by an A/E firm for the general contractor often protects the interest of the A/E firm at the expense of the interests of the owner and the contractor. In order to reduce the cost of construction, some owners introduce value engineering, which seeks to reduce the cost of construction by soliciting a wink design that might cost less than the original design produced by the A/E firm.In practice, the second design is submitted by the contractor after receiving a construction contract at a stipulated sum, and the saving in cost resulting from the design is shared by the contractor and the owner. The contractor is able to absorb the cost of design from the profit in construction or to reduce the construction cost as a result of the re-design. If the own er had been free to pay a higher fee to the A/E firm or to better direct the design process, the A/E firm might demand produced an ameliorate design which would cost less in the first place.Regardless of the deserve of value engineering, this practice has undermined the role of the A/E firm as the prime professional acting on behalf of the owner to supervise the contractor. Design/Construct Firms A common panache in industrial construction, particularly for large projects, is to engage the services of a design/construct firm. By integrating design and construction management in a single organization, many of the conflicts between designers and constructors might be bended. In particular, designs will be almostly scrutinized for their constructibility.However, an owner engaging a design/construct firm must insure that the quality of the constructed facility is not sacrificed by the desire to reduce the time or the cost for completing the project. Also, it is difficult to make use of competitive bidding in this type of design/construct process. As a result, owners must be relatively ripe in negotiating realistic and cost- useful construction contracts. One of the most self-explanatory advantages of the combine design/construct process is the use of phased construction for a large project.In this process, the project is divided up into several phases, each of which can be designed and constructed in a staggered manner. After the completion of the design of the first phase, construction can begin without waiting for the completion of the design of the second phase, etc. If proper coordination is exercised. the fundamental project duration can be greatly reduced. Another advantage is to movement the possibility of using the turnkey approach whereby an owner can delegate all tariff to the esign/construct firm which will deliver to the owner a completed facility that meets the performance specifications at the qualify price. Professional Construction Managers In new-made years, a new breed of construction managers (CM) offers professional services from the inception to the completion of a construction project. These construction managers primarily come from the ranks of A/E firms or general contractors who may or may not retain dual roles in the service of the owners.In any case, the owner can rely on the service of a single prime professional to manage the entire process of a construction project. However, like the A/E firms of several decades ago, the construction managers are apprehended by some owners plainly not by others. Before long, some owners celebrate that the construction managers too may try to protect their own interest alternatively of that of the owners when the stakes are high. It should be obvious to all involved in the construction process that the party which is required to take higher risk demands larger rewards.If an owner demands to engage an A/E firm on the root word of low fees instead of establi shed qualifications, it often gets what it deserves or if the owner wants the general contractor to bear the cost of uncertainties in construction such as foundation conditions, the contract price will be higher charge if competitive bidding is used in orbit a contractual agreement. Without mutual respect and trust, an owner cannot expect that construction managers can produce better results than other professionals. Hence, an owner must understand its own righteousness and the risk it wishes to assign to itself and to other participants in the process.Operation and Maintenance Managers Although many owners keep a permanent staff for the operation and alimentation of constructed facilities, others may prefer to contract such tasks to professional managers. Understandably, it is common to find in-house staff for operation and caution in specialized industrial plants and infrastructure facilities, and the use of outside managers under contracts for the operation and maintenance o f rental properties such as apartments and federal agency buildings. However, there are exceptions to these common practices. For example, maintenance of public roadways can be undertake to private firms.In any case, managers can provide a spectrum of operation and maintenance services for a specified time period in accordance to the terms of contractual agreements. Thus, the owners can be spared the provision of in-house expertise to operate and maintain the facilities. Facilities Management As a logical file name extension for obtaining the best services throughout the project life cycle of a constructed facility, some owners and developers are receptive to adding strategic planning at the beginning and facility maintenance as a put through to reduce home- cogitate costs in their real estate holdings.Consequently, some architectural/engineering firms and construction management firms with data processor-based expertise, together with interior design firms, are offering such front-end and follow-up services in addition to the more traditional services in design and construction. This spectrum of services is described in engineering new-sprung(prenominal)s-Record (now ENR) as follows 2 Facilities management is the discipline of planning, designing, constructing and managing space in every type of structure from office buildings to process plants.It involves developing integrated facilities policy, long-range forecasts, real estate, space inventories, projects (through design, construction and renovation), building operation and maintenance plans and article of furniture and equipment inventories. A common denominator of all firms accounting entry into these new services is that they all amaze strong computer capabilities and heavy computer investments.In addition to the use of computers for aiding design and monitoring construction, the service includes the compilation of a computer record of building plans that can be turned over at the end of cons truction to the facilities management class of the owner. A computer data base of facilities information makes it possible for planners in the owners organization to obtain overview information for long range space forecasts, while the line managers can use as-built information such as lease/tenant records, utility(prenominal) costs, etc. for day-to-day operations. Back to surpass 1. 5 Construction asseveratorsBuilders who supervise the execution of construction projects are traditionally referred to as contractors, or more appropriately called constructors. The general contractor coordinates various tasks for a project while the specialty contractors such as machinelike or electrical contractors perform the work in their specialties. Material and equipment suppliers often act as innovation contractors they play a satisfying role in a construction project since the conditions of delivery of materials and equipment affect the quality, cost, and timely completion of the project .It is essential to understand the operation of these contractors in order to deal with them effectively. General Contractors The function of a general contractor is to coordinate all tasks in a construction project. Unless the owner performs this function or engages a professional construction manager to do so, a good general contractor who has worked with a team of superintendents, specialty contractors or subcontractors together for a number of projects in the past can be most effective in inspiring loyalty and cooperation. The general contractor is also knowledgeable about the compass force employed in construction.The push back force may or may not be unionized depending on the size and location of the projects. In some projects, no member of the work force belongs to a moil union in other cases, both union and non-union craftsmen work together in what is called an open shop, or all craftsmen must be connected with stab unions in a unlikable shop. Since wear out unions p rovide hiring halls staffed with skilled journeyman who abide gone through scholar programs for the projects as well as component as collective bargain units, an see general contractor will make good use of the benefits and avoid the pitfalls in dealing with organized labor.Specialty Contractors Specialty contractors include mechanical, electrical, foundation, excavation, and demolition contractors among others. They usually serve as subcontractors to the general contractor of a project. In some cases, legal statutes may require an owner to deal with various specialty contractors instantaneously. In the State of pertly York, for example, specialty contractors, such as mechanical and electrical contractors, are not subjected to the charge of the general contractor of a construction project and must be addicted separate prime contracts on public works.With the exception of such special cases, an owner will hold the general contractor responsible for negotiating and fulfilling the contractual agreements with the subcontractors. Material and Equipment Suppliers Major material suppliers include specialty contractors in structural steel fabrication and erection, saddlery metal, ready mixed concrete delivery, reinforcing steel bar detailers, roofing, glazing etc. Major equipment suppliers for industrial construction include manufacturers of generators, boilers and piping and other equipment.Many suppliers handle on-site installation to insure that the requirements and contractual specifications are met. As more and larger structural units are prefabricated off-site, the distribution between specialty contractors and material suppliers becomes even less obvious. Back to top 1. 6 Financing of Constructed Facilities A major construction project requires an enormous amount of capital that is often supplied by loaners who want to be assured that the project will offer a fair income tax return on the investment.The direct costs associated with a major constructi on project may be slackly classified into both categories (1) the construction expenses paid to the general contractor for erecting the facility on site and (2) the expenses for land acquisition, legal fees, architect/engineer fees, construction management fees, interest on construction bestows and the opportunity cost of carrying modify space in the facility until it is fully occupied. The direct construction costs in the first category represent around 60 to 80 percentage of the total costs in most construction projects.Since the costs of construction are lastly borne by the owner, careful financial planning for the facility must be made prior to construction. Construction Financing Construction loans to contractors are usually provided by swears or savings and loan associations for construction financing. Upon the completion of the facility, construction loans will be ended and the post-construction facility financing will be ordered by the owner. Construction loans provi ded for different types of construction vary.In the case of residential housing, construction loans and semipermanent mortgages can be obtained from savings and loans associations or commercial banks. For institutional and commercial buildings, construction loans are usually obtained from commercial banks. Since the value of specialized industrial buildings as collateral for loans is limited, construction loans in this domain are rare, and construction financing can be done from the consortium of general incorporated funds.For infrastructure construction owned by government, the property cannot be used as security for a private loan, but there are many possible ways to finance the construction, such as general appropriation from taxation or special bonds issued for the project. Traditionally, banks serve as construction lenders in a three-party agreement among the contractor, the owner and the bank. The stipulated loan will be paid to the contractor on an agreed schedule upon the check of completion of various portions of the project.Generally, a recompense request together with a exemplar kick upstairs report will be submitted each month by the contractor to the owner which in turn submits a draw request to the bank. Provided that the work to determine has been performed satisfactorily, the disbursement is made on that radix during the construction period. Under such circumstances, the bank has been in the first place concerned with the completion of the facility on time and within the budget. The economic life of the facility after its completion is not a concern because of the transfer of risk to the owner or an institutional lender.Facility Financing Many private corporations maintain a pool of general funds resulting from retained earnings and long-run borrowing on the strength of corporate assets, which can be used for facility financing. Similarly, for public agencies, the long-term funding may be obtained from the commitment of general tax r evenues from the federal, state and/or local governments. two private corporations and public agencies may issue special bonds for the constructed facilities which may obtain lower interest rates than other forms of borrowing.short-term borrowing may also be used for bridging the gaps in long-term financing. Some corporate bonds are convertible to stocks under circumstances specified in the bond agreement. For public facilities, the assessment of exploiter fees to pay the bond funds merits consideration for certain types of facilities such as toll roads and sewage treatment plants. 3 The use of mortgages is primarily confined to rental properties such as apartments and office buildings. Because of the sudden surge of interest rates in the late 1970s, many financial institutions offer, in addition to he traditional fixed rate long-term mortgage commitments, other arrangements such as a combination of debt and a serving of ownership in exchange for a long-term mortgage or the use of adjustable rate mortgages. In some cases, the construction loan may be granted on an open-ended basis without a long-term financing commitment. For example, the plan might be issued for the construction period with an option to extend it for a period of up to three years in order to give the owner more time to seek alternative long-term financing on the completed facility.The bank will be drawn into situations involving financial risk if it chooses to be a lender without long-term guarantees. For supra study projects, the currency used for financing agreements becomes important. If financial agreements are scripted in terms of local currencies, then fluctuations in the currency exchange rate can solidly affect the cost and ultimately profit of a project. In some cases, payments might also be made in particular commodities such as petroleum or the proceeds from the facility itself.Again, these arrangements result in greater uncertainty in the financing scheme because the price of these commodities may vary. Back to top 1. 7 Legal and Regulatory Requirements The owners of facilities by nature want legal protection for all the activities involved in the construction. It is equally obvious that they should seek competent legal advice. However, there are certain principles that should be accepted by owners in order to avoid unnecessary pitfalls. Legal Responsibilities Activities in construction often involve risks, both physical and financial.An owner generally tries to shift the risks to other parties to the degree possible when entering into contractual agreements with them. However, such action is not without cost or risk. For example, a contractor who is charge the risks may either ask for a higher contract price to requite for the higher risks, or end up in non-performance or bankruptcy as an act of desperation. Such consequences can be avoided if the owner is reasonable in risk allocation. When risks are allocated to different parties, the owner mu st understand the implications and spell them out clearly.some quantify there are statutory limitations on the allocation of liabilities among various groups, such as prohibition against the allocation of negligence in design to the contractor. An owner must realize its superior power in dicker and hence the responsibilities associated with this power in making contractual agreements. Mitigation of Conflicts It is important for the owner to use legal counselors as advisors to palliate conflicts before they happen quite a than to plow conflicts as weapons against other parties.There are becoming problems in design and construction due to uncertainty or else than bad intentions. The owner should recognize the more beginner approaches for mitigating conflicts, such as using owner-controlled wrap-up amends which will provide protection for all parties involved in the construction process for unforeseen risks, or using arbitration, intermediation and other extra-judicial solutions for disputes among various parties. However, these compromise solutions are not without pitfalls and should be adopted only on the merit of individual cases. political relation Regulation To protect public rubber and welfare, legislatures and various government agencies periodically issue regulations which influence the construction process, the operation of constructed facilities, and their ultimate disposal. For example, building codes promulgated by local authorities acquire provided guidelines for design and construction practices for a very long time. Since the 1970s, many federal regulations that are related directly or indirectly to construction have been established in the United States.Among them are safety standards for workers issued by the Occupational health and Safety Administration, environmental standards on pollutants and virulent wastes issued by the Environmental Protection Agency, and design and operation procedures for nuclear power plants issued by the Nuc lear Regulatory Commission. Owners must be aware of the impacts of these regulations on the costs and durations of various types of construction projects as well as possibilities of litigation due to various contentions.For example, owners acquiring sites for new construction may be strictly liable for any uncivilized wastes already on the site or removed from the site under the U. S. panoptic Environmental Response Compensation and obligation (CERCL) Act of 1980. For large scale projects involving new technologies, the construction costs often escalate with the uncertainty associated with such restrictions. Back to top 1. 8 The Changing Environment of the Construction constancy The construction industry is a conglomeration of diverse fields and participants that have been loosely lumped together as a sector of the economy.The construction industry plays a central role in national welfare, including the development of residential housing, office buildings and industrial plants , and the restoration of the nations infrastructure and other public facilities. The importance of the construction industry lies in the function of its products which provide the foundation for industrial production, and its impacts on the national economy cannot be measured by the value of its product or the number of persons employed in its activities alone.To be more specific, construction refers to all types of activities usually associated with the erection and repair of strong facilities. Contract construction consists of a large number of firms that perform construction work for others, and is estimated to be approximately 85% of all construction activities. The remaining 15% of construction is performed by owners of the facilities, and is referred to as force-account construction. Although the number of contractors in the United States exceeds a million, over 60% of all contractor construction is performed by the top 400 contractors.The value of new construction in the Un ited States (expressed in constant dollars) and the value of construction as a contribution of the gross national products from 1950 to 1985 are shown in Figures 1-6 and 1-7. It can be seen that construction is a significant factor in the Gross National ware although its importance has been declining in recent years. 4 not to be ignored is the fact that as the nations constructed facilities become older, the total expenditure on rehabilitation and maintenance may increase relative to the value of new construction.Figure 1-6 Value of juvenile Construction in the United States, 1975-1995 Figure 1-7 Construction as Percentage of Gross Domestic carrefour in the United States, 1975-1995 Owners who pay close attention to the peculiar characteristics of the construction industry and its changing operating environment will be able to take advantage of the favorable conditions and to avoid the pitfalls. Several factors are particularly noteworthy because of their significant impacts on the quality, cost and time of construction. spick-and-span TechnologiesIn recent years, technological innovation in design, materials and construction methods have resulted in significant changes in construction costs. Computer-aids have im be capabilities for generating quality designs as well as reducing the time required to produce alternative designs. sore materials not only have enhanced the quality of construction but also have shortened the time for shop fabrication and field erection. Construction methods have gone through various stages of mechanization and automation, including the latest development of construction robotics.The most dramatic new technology applied to construction has been the cyberspace and its private, corporate Intranet versions. The Internet is astray used as a means to rear collaboration among professionals on a project, to convey for bids and results, and to procure necessary goods and services. Real time video from specific construction sites is widely used to illustrate construction progress to interested parties. The result has been more effective collaboration, communication and procurement.The effects of many new technologies on construction costs have been mixed because of the high development costs for new technologies. However, it is unmistakable that design professionals and construction contractors who have not adapted to changing technologies have been hale out of the mainstream of design and construction activities. Ultimately, construction quality and cost can be improved with the word meaning of new technologies which are proved to be efficient from both the viewpoints of performance and economy. turn over ProductivityThe term productivity is generally defined as a ratio of the production payoff volume to the arousal volume of resources. Since both output and gossip can be quantified in a number of ways, there is no single measure of productivity that is universally applicable, particularly in the cons truction industry where the products are often unique and there is no standard for specifying the levels for aggregation of data. However, since labor constitutes a large part of the cost of construction, labor productivity in terms of output volume (constant dollar value or functional units) per person-hour is a useful measure. crusade productivity measured in this way does not necessarily indicate the efficiency of labor alone but rather measures the combined effects of labor, equipment and other factors modify to the output. While aggregate construction industry productivity is important as a measure of national economy, owners are more concerned about the labor productivity of fundamental units of work produced by various crafts on site. Thus, an owner can oppose the labor performance at different geo interpretic locations, under different working conditions, and for different types and sizes of projects.Construction costs usually run parallel to material prices and labor wag es. Actually, over the years, labor productivity has change magnitude in some traditional types of construction and thus provides a leveling or compensating effect when hourly rates for labor increase faster than other costs in construction. However, labor productivity has been dead(prenominal) or even declined in original or large scale projects. national Scrutiny Under the present disputatious climate in the United States, the public is increasingly vocal in the exam of construction project activities.Sometimes it may result in considerable fuss in siting new facilities as well as additional expenses during the construction process itself. Owners must be prepared to manage such crises before they get out of control. Figure 1-8 can serve to indicate public attitudes towards the siting of new facilities. It represents the cumulative percentage of individuals who would be willing to accept a new industrial facility at various withdrawnnesss from their homes.For example, over fi fty percent of the people surveyed would accept a ten-story office building within five miles of their home, but only twenty-five percent would accept a large factory or coal fired power plant at a similar distance. An even lower percentage would accept a hazardous waste disposal site or a nuclear power plant. Even at a distance of one hundred miles, a significant fraction of the public would be averse to accept hazardous waste facilities or nuclear power plants.Figure 1-8 macrocosm Acceptance Towards New Facilities (Reprinted from Environmental musical note 1980, the Eleventh Annual account of the Council on Environmental Quality, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, celestial latitude 1980. ) This objection to new facilities is a general public attitude, representing considerable skepticism about the external benefits and costs which new facilities will impose. It is this public attitude which is likely to make public scrutiny and regulation a continuing concern for the construction industry. world-wide Competition A final trend which deserves note is the increasing level of international competition in the construction industry. Owners are likely to find non-traditional firms bidding for construction work, particularly on large projects. get around bids from numerous European, North American, and Asian construction firms are not unusual. In the United States, overseas firms are becoming increasingly visible and important. In this environment of heightened competition, good project management and improved productivity are more and more important.A bidding competition for a major new offshore drilling platform illustrates the competitive environment in construction. As described in the Wall bridle-path Journal 5 Through most of the postwar years, the nations biggest builders of offshore oil platforms enjoyed an unusually familiar relationship with the Big Oil Companies they served. Their top officials developed personal friendships with oil executives, socialise them at opulent hunting camps- and won contracts to build nearly every major offshore oil platform in the world. merely this summer, the good-old boy earnings fell apart. Shell Oil Co. awarded the main contract for a new platform taller than Chicagos Sears Tower, four times heavier than the Brooklyn Bridge to a tiny upstart. The winning bidder arranged overseas fabrication of the rig, kept operating expense costs low, and proposed a novel forum procedure by which construction equipment was mount on completed sections of the platform in order to speed the completion of the entire structure. The result was lower costs than those estimated and bid by traditional firms. Of course, U. S. firms including A/E firms, contractors and construction managers are also competing in foreign countries.Their success or mischance in the international arena may also affect their capacities and vitality to provide services in the domestic U. S. market. Contractor Finan ced Projects Increasingly, some owners look to contractors or enunciate ventures as a resource to design, to build and to finance a constructed facility. For example, a utility company may seek a consortium consisting of a design/construct firm and a financial investment firm to assume total liability during construction and thereby eliminate the risks of cost escalation to ratepayers, stockholders and the management.On the other hand, a local sanitation district may seek such a consortium to provide private ownership for a proposed new sewage treatment plant. In the cause case, the owner may take over the completed facility and service the debt on construction through long-term financing arrangements in the latter case, the private owner may operate the completed facility and recover its investment through user fees. The activities of word ventures among design, construction and investment firms are sometimes referred to as financial engineering.This type of joint venture has bec ome more important in the international construction market where aggressive contractors often win contracts by offering a more attractive financing package rather than superior technology. With a deepening derriere of international debts in recent years, many developing countries are not in a position to undertake any new project without contractor-backed financing. Thus, the contractors or joint ventures in overseas projects are forced into very risky positions if they intend to go on in the competition. lean Construction Lean manufacturing had a revolutionary effect on many industries, especially automotive hookup companies. Characteristics of this approach include * Improvement in quality and reduction of waste everywhere. earlier than increasing costs, reducing defects and waste proved to improve quality and reduce costs. * Empowering workers to be responsible for satisfying customer needs. In construction, for example, craftsman should make sure their work satisfied the d esign intent. * Continuous improvement of processes involving the entire workforce. Lean construction s intended to spread these practices within the construction industry. Of course, well managed construction projects already have many aspects of lean construction. For example, just-in-time delivery of materials is commonplace to avoid the waste of large chronicle stockpiles. Green building projects attempt to re-use or recycle all construction wastes. But the systematic attention to continuous improvement and zero accidents and defects is new. Back to top 1. 9 The Role of Project Managers In the project life cycle, the most influential factors affecting the outcome of the project often reside at the early stages.At this point, decisions should be based on competent economic evaluation with due consideration for adequate financing, the prevalent social and regulatory environment, and technological considerations. Architects and engineers might specialize in planning, in constructi on field management, or in operation, but as project managers, they must have some familiarity with all such aspects in order to understand aright their role and be able to make competent decisions. Since the 1970s, many large-scale projects have run into serious problems of management, such as cost overruns and long schedule delays.Actually, the management of megaprojects or superprojects is not a practice peculiar to our time. Witness the construction of continental railroads in the accomplished War era and the construction of the Panama Canal at the turn of this century. Although the megaprojects of this generation may wait in greater frequency and present a new set of challenge, the problems are organizational rather than technical. As celebrated by Hardy Cross 6 It is habitual to think of engineering as a part of a trilogy, pure acquirement, applied science and engineering.It needs emphasis that this trilogy is only one of a triad of trilogies into which engineering fits . This first is pure science, applied science and engineering the second is economic theory, finance and engineering and the third is social relations, industrial relations and engineering. Many engineering problems are as closely allied to social problems as they are to pure science. As engineers advance professionally, they often spend as much or more time on planning, management and other economic or social problems as on the traditional engineering design and psychoanalysis problems which form the core of most commandmental programs.It is upon the ability of engineers to tackle all such problems that their performance will ultimately be judged. The greatest stumbling block to effective management in construction is the inertia and historic divisions among planners, designers and constructors. While technical competence in design and innovation remains the foundation of engineering practice, the social, economic and organizational factors that are pervasive in influencing the s uccess and reverse of construction projects must also be dealt with effectively by design and construction organizations.Of course, engineers are not expected to know every detail of management techniques, but they must be knowledgeable enough to anticipate the problems of management so that they can work harmoniously with professionals in related fields to overcome the inertia and historic divisions. Paradoxically, engineers who are creative in engineering design are often progressive in planning and management since both types of activities involve problem resoluteness.In fact, they can reinforce each other if both are included in the education process, provided that creativity and innovation instead of routine practice are emphasized. A project manager who is well educated in the fundamental principles of engineering design and management can usefully apply such principles once he or she has acquired basic understanding of a new drill area. A project manager who has been ing enious by rote learning for a specific type of project may merely gain one year of experience repeated twenty times even if he or she has been in the field for twenty years.A broadly educated project manager can reasonably hope to become a leader in the profession a narrowly trained project manager is often relegated to the role of his or her first job level permanently. The owners have much at stake in selecting a competent project manager and in providing her or him with the authority to assume responsibility at various stages of the project disregarding of the types of contractual agreements for implementing the project. Of course, the project manager must also possess the leadership quality and the ability to handle effectively intricate interpersonal relationships within an organization.The ultimate test of the education and experience of a project manager for construction lies in her or his ability to apply fundamental principles to solving problems in the new and unfamiliar situations which have become the hallmarks of the changing environment in the construction industry. Back to top 1. 10 References 1. Au, T. and C. Hendrickson, Education in Engineering Planning and Management, Proceedings of the ASCE Conference on Civil Engineering Education, Columbus, Ohio, 1985. 2. Barrie, D. S. editor), Directions in Managing Construction, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1981. 3. Lean Construction Institute, http//www. leanconstruction. org/ 4. Bonny, J. B. and J. P. Frein, Handbook of Construction Management and Organization, 2nd Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. , New York, 1980. 5. Hasagawa, Fumio et. al. , Built by Japan, John Wiley Sons, 1988. 6. Lang, J. E. and D. Q. Mills, The Construction Industry, Lexington Books, Lexington, MA, 1979. 7. Walker, N. , E. N. Walker and T. K.Rohdenburg, Legal Pitfalls in Architecture, Engineering and Building Construction, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co. , New York, 1979. Back to top 1. 11 Footnotes 1. The short letter Roundtable, More Construction for the Money, Summary Report of the Construction Industry Cost lastingness Project, January 1983, p. 11. Back 2. Hot New grocery Lures A-E Players to Cutting Edges, Engineering News-Record, April 4, 1985, pp. 30-37. Back 3. confabulate Hendrickson, C. , Financing Civil Works with exploiter Fees, Civil Engineering, Vol. 53, No. , February 1983, pp. 71-72. Back 4. The graph is derived from data in Value of New Construction Put in Place, 1960-1983, statistical Abstract of the United States, 105th Edition, U. S. section of Commerce, Bureau of Census, 1985, pp. 722-723, as well as the information in earlier editions. Back 5. render Petzinger, Thomas Jr. , Upstarts lovable Bid for Offshore Platform Stuns its elder Rivals, Wall Street Journal, p. 1, c. 6, Nov. 20, 1985. Back 6. See H. Cross, Engineers and Ivory Towers, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc. , New York, 1952. Back Table of Contents Next Chapter Go Up to Table of Contents Go To Chapter 2 (Organiz ing for Project Management) The Owners Perspective Introduction The Project Life Cycle Major Types of Construction Selection of Professional Services Construction Contractors Financing of Constructed Facilities Legal and Regulatory Requirements The Changing Environment of the Construction Industry The Role of Project Managers References Footnotes 1. The Owners Perspective 1. 1 IntroductionLike the five blind men encountering different parts of an elephant, each of the numerous participants in the process of planning, designing, financing, constructing and operating physical facilities has a different perspective on project management for construction. Specialized knowledge can be very beneficial, particularly in large and complicated projects, since experts in various specialties can provide valuable services. However, it is advantageous to understand how the different parts of the process fit together. Waste, excessive cost and delays can result from poor coordination and commun ication among specialists.It is particularly in the interest of owners to insure that such problems do not occur. And it behooves all participants in the process to heed the interests of owners because, in the end, it is the owners who provide the resources and call the shots. By adopting the viewpoint of the owners, we can focus our attention on the complete process of project management for constructed facilities rather than the historical roles of various specialists such as planners, architects, engineering designers, constructors, fabricators, material suppliers, financial analysts and others.To be sure, each specialty has made important advances in developing new techniques and tools for efficient implementation of construction projects. However, it is through the understanding of the entire process of project management that these specialists can respond more effectively to the owners desires for their services, in merchandise their specialties, and in improving the producti vity and quality of their work. The introduction of innovative and more effective project management for construction is not an academic exercise.As reported by the Construction Industry Cost Effectiveness Project of the Business Roundtable 1 By common consensus and every available measure, the United States no longer gets its moneys worth in construction, the nations largest industry The creeping erosion of construction efficiency and productivity is bad discussion for the entire U. S. economy. Construction is a particularly seminal industry. The price of every factory, office building, hotel or power plant that is built affects the price that must be charged for the goods or services produced in it or by it.And that effect generally persists for decades Too much of the industry remains tether to the past, partly by inertia and partly by historic divisions Improvement of project management not only can aid the construction industry, but may also be the engine for the national an d world economy. However, if we are to make meaningful improvements, we must first understand the construction industry, its operating environment and the institutional constraints affecting its activities as well as the nature of project management.Back to top 1. 2 The Project Life Cycle The acquisition of a constructed facility usually represents a major capital investment, whether its owner happens to be an individual, a private corporation or a public agency. Since the commitment of resources for such an investment is motivated by market demands or perceived needs, the facility is expected to satisfy certain objectives within the constraints specified by the owner and relevant regulations.With the exception of the speculative housing market, where the residential units may be sold as built by the real estate developer, most constructed facilities are custom made in consultation with the owners. A real estate developer may be regarded as the sponsor of building projects, as much as a government agency may be the sponsor of a public project and turns it over to another government unit upon its completion. From the viewpoint of project management, the terms owner and sponsor are synonymous because both have the ultimate authority to make all important decisions.Since an owner is essentially acquiring a facility on a promise in some form of agreement, it will be wise for any owner to have a clear understanding of the acquisition process in order to maintain firm control of the quality, timeliness and cost of the completed facility. From the perspective of an owner, the project life cycle for a constructed facility may be illustrated schematically in Figure 1-1. Essentially, a project is conceived to meet market demands or needs in a timely fashion.Various possibilities may be considered in the conceptual planning stage, and the technological and economic feasibility of each alternative will be assessed and compared in order to select the best possible project. The financing schemes for the proposed alternatives must also be examined, and the project will be programmed with respect to the timing for its completion and for available cash flows. After the scope of the project is clearly defined, detailed engineering design will provide the blueprint for construction, and the definitive cost estimate will serve as the service line for cost control.In the procurement and construction stage, the delivery of materials and the erection of the project on site must be cautiously planned and controlled. After the construction is completed, there is usually a brief period of start-up or shake-down of the constructed facility when it is first occupied. Finally, the management of the facility is turned over to the owner for full occupancy until the facility lives out its useful life and is designated for demolition or conversion. Figure 1-1 The Project Life Cycle of a Constructed FacilityOf course, the stages of development in Figure 1-1 may not be st rictly sequential. Some of the stages require iteration, and others may be carried out in parallel or with overlapping time frames, depending on the nature, size and urgency of the project. Furthermore, an owner may have in-house capacities to handle the work in every stage of the entire process, or it may seek professional advice and services for the work in all stages. Understandably, most owners choose to handle some of the work in-house and to contract outside professional services for other components of the work as needed.By examining the project life cycle from an owners perspective we can focus on the proper roles of various activities and participants in all stages disregarding of the contractual arrangements for different types of work. In the United States, for example, the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers has in-house capabilities to deal with planning, budgeting, design, construction and operation of waterway and flood control structures. Other public agencies, such as st ate transportation departments, are also deeply involved in all phases of a construction project.In the private sector, many large firms such as DuPont, Exxon, and IBM are adequately staffe