Balancing cooperation and competition. Strategic planning in the Assignment

Balancing cooperation and competition. Strategic planning in the public sector - Assignment Example Balancing cooperation and competition. Strategic planning in the public sector Today, organizations are focusing on how to survive amidst emerging challenges in their external environment. This has led to such organizations developing adaptability measures that facilitate their survival and success in the long run. In spite of this, organizations are forced to strike a fit between cooperation and competition, in the industry in which they operate in, as well as their own survival is to be sustained in the long run. This study explores how Microsoft has stricken a fit between cooperation and competition in its operations while at the same time collecting feedback to identify and support emergent behavior. In the past two decades, Microsoft has been faced by increasing level of competition in its software and web based solutions market. The organization understands that in the technology industry, cooperation is inevitable. For instance, the organization faced a lot of competition from SAP and Siemens. These two organizations went ahead and launched patent battles with Microsoft. While down playing their views and purely taking a legal and competitive approach could have granted Microsoft short term success, the organization opted to cooperate and collaborate with the rivals, resulting to a cross licensing arrangement. This significantly enhanced the ability of the organization to continue using such rights through cooperation while at the same time enhancing its competitiveness in the market. The experience boosted Microsoft’s ability to enhance cooperation in other areas of operation including marketing for mutual benefits. (Vidal, & Nossol, 2011). Microsoft has remained stead fast in promotion of cooperation with its customers. In 2006, the organization adopted a more collaborative approach in the industry, something that enhanced its access to unique technology from rivals while at the same time empowering them to establish more product lines that the organization was not focused on. One of the outstanding occurrences towards this end by Microsoft with competitor is the collaboration with Linux, a product developed by a competitor to the organizations Microsoft word among others. This increased interoperability of Linux with Microsoft word (Microsoft News Centre, 2008). This implies that Microsoft customers of windows could open Linux using such windows while Linux customers could enjoy Microsoft windows in opening of Linux documents. This resulted to mutual benefit between the two organizations and minimization of patent disagreements and legal battles between the firms. In the past two decades, Microsoft has relied on employee, customer and competitor feed back to enhance its success in the industry. By collecting feedback from its competitors such as Samsung and the Linux software developer company, the organization was able to identify emerging needs and opportunities that could be served through collaboration (Microsoft News Centre, 2008). The organization thus fostered a two way form of communication between such firms and the organization. In an effort to ensure that such viable environment positioning is sustained, the organization always focus at hiring the best employees in the industry in terms of skill and engages them in periodic appraisal (Tyler, & Blader, 2003). In situations where performance is found to be low, such employees are engaged in skills development. In fact, the organization has adopted a culture of continuous learning. All these moves have enhanced sustainability and success of the organization in its dynamic operating environment (Tjosvold, & Johnson, 2003). References Microsoft News Centre (2008). Mi crosoft’s collaboration imperative. Retrieved April 11, 2013 from http://www.microsoft.com/Presspass/ofnote/04-01-08GutierezIAMArticle.mspx Tjosvold, D., & Johnson, D. (2003). Can interpersonal competition be Constructive within organizations? The Journal of Psychology 137(1), 63-84.

Chador on Muslim Women Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Chador on Muslim Women - Essay Example A chador is a loose robe that is worn like an open cloak by Muslim women, as stated in the Definition of Chador. Although most people associate the wearing of chador with Iranian women, it is deemed that chador is also worn by Muslim women in other parts of the Middle East like Saudi Arabia and the UAE. Typically, a chador is worn with hijab, a headscarf which is intended to cover the wearer’s hair, throat, and neck, as claimed in an online article entitled Chador. However, a chador does not necessarily have to include a facial veil. In terms of wearing the chador, women pull it over their heads, clasping it shut in front and swathing their bodies in the fabric, as discussed in an online article called What is a Chador?. This is made possible because the chador is cut in the shape of an open half-circle. A well-worn chador is able to cover everything but the hands, feet, and face of the woman, with hijab giving extra support by covering the face—all of these to ensure t hat nothing indiscreet will be revealed. It is interesting to point out that some highly traditional women wear chador with a riband.The underneath clothing depends upon the taste of the wearer. Although there were certain points in Muslim history in which Iranian women wore daring outfits as an expression of their outrage against the manipulative government, the majority of the Muslim women like wearing the chador with a modest clothing underneath in order to highlight their expression of piety, their matter of taste, or just plain personal comfort.

Retrieval of User Interesting and Rank Oriented Results

Retrieval of User Interesting and Rank Oriented Results Abstract: Retrieval of user interesting and rank oriented results is always an important research issue in information retrieval and search engine optimization. The main problem with traditional approaches is, they gives redundant results based relevance score of the search results. In this paper we are proposing sink points based redundant removal approach with rank oriented results for user input query. Here our proposed approach follows the property of convergence and diversity for accurate rank oriented results with sink points. Introduction: Guided summarization assignment is to compose a 100-saying summary of a set of 10 newswire articles for a given subject, where the subject falls into a predefined class. Given a rundown of critical angles for every class, the summary must cover all these viewpoints if the data can be found in the archives. The outlines might likewise contain other data important to the subject. Plus, guided summarization additionally requests a redesign summary, comparative[8] to the overhaul summarization in Tac2009. Overhaul summarization goes for creating rundowns accepting the client has perused a few articles in the recent past. Particularly, given the theme, the undertaking is to compose two outlines, one for report set An and the other for report set B, that address the data need communicated in the relating theme explanation. The summary for report set A will be a query focused multi-report summary. The upgrade summary for report set B is likewise inquiry centered multi-record one however ought to be composed under the suspicion that the client of the summary has as of now perused the reports in report set A. Every summary ought to be decently composed, in English, utilizing complete sentences[7]. Every summary can be no more than 100 words. As a compelling and compact methodology of helping clients to get the principle focuses, archive summarization has pulled in much consideration since the first work by many researchers. Various scientists have done great work in multi-report summarization (MDS). As of late, there developed two novel requests for summarization. One is the viewpoint particular necessity, the other is time dependent prerequisite. A client anticipates that the summary will contain data particular to the specific classification of the occasion. Then, new data is made as the occasions create. A client likewise needs the summary to contain mostly novel data, to spare time[6,5]. Then again, much of current work has concentrated on the determined static record accumulation without endeavoring to catch the progressions about whether or attempting to give the perspective based data. The exemplary issue of summarization is to take a data source, concentrate content from it, and present the most critical substance to the client in a consolidated form and in a way touchy to the clients or applications needs, which has been concentrated on in numerous varieties and has been tended to through a ton of summarization methods. Be that as it may, the requests of novel and angle particular data have not been completely perceived yet[9]. The objective of guided summarization errand is to address these two new requests of summarization all the while. By giving compact, viewpoint particular synopses of the periodical element data dedicated to a typical point, guided summary can spare the clients from scanning the web content with much repetition. We can detail the guided summarization errand as angle based upgrade summarization, which can be important for intermittently checking the essential changes of particular viewpoint from the archives differing over a given time period Everybody realizes that location-based services (LBS) is a data or excitement administration, which is open with cell phones through the versatile system and which utilizes data on the topographical position of the cell phone, so we wont trouble you with that. System based procedures use the administration suppliers system framework to distinguish the location of the handset. The focal point of system based systems from a versatile administrators perspective is that they can be executed non-rudely, without influencing the handsets. Handset-based engineering obliges introducing customer programming on the handset to focus its location. This method decides the location of the handset by processing its location by cell recognizable proof, signal qualities of the home and neighboring cells, which is ceaselessly sent to the transporter. Whats more, if the handset is likewise outfitted with GPS then altogether more exact location data is sent from the handset to the bearer. By utilizing the SIM as a part of GSM and UMTS handsets, it is conceivable to acquire crude radio estimations from the handset. The estimations that are accessible can incorporate the serving Cell ID, round excursion time and sign quality. The kind of data acquired by means of the SIM can contrast from what is accessible from the handset. Case in point, it may not be conceivable to acquire any crude estimations from the handset straightforwardly, yet still get estimations through the SIM. Hybrid positioning situating frameworks utilize a blend of system based and handset-based advances for location determination. One illustration would be a few modes of Assisted GPS, which can both utilization GPS and system data to register the location. Both sorts of information are subsequently utilized by the phone to make the location more precise (i.e. A-GPS). On the other hand following with both frameworks can likewise happen by having the telephone accomplish his GPS-location straightforwardly from the satellites, and afterward having the data sent through the system to the individual that is attempting to place the phone. Google Latitude, case in point, permits such cell telephone following. Related work : Upgrade summarization is a worldly augmentation of topic focused multi-report summarization by concentrating on compressing exceptional data contained in the new report set given a past report set[2]. A real approach for overhaul summarization is extractive summarization. In the extractive methodology, upgrade summarization is diminished to a sentence positioning issue, which makes a summary by extricating the most illustrative sentences from target record set. There are four objectives a positioning calculation for redesign summarization plans to accomplish: Topic Relevance: The summary is focused around a topic related multi-record set, where a subject speaks clients data need (either a short question or story). Hence, the summary must stick to the theme clients are keen on. Importance: Not all the sentences in the reports convey data of equivalent imperativeness about the theme. The summary needs to disregard inconsequential substance also incorporate vital data. Diversity: There ought to be less excess data in the summary, so the constrained summary space can cover however much data as could reasonably be expected about the subject. Novelty: Given a pointed out theme and two sequentially requested record sets, the summary needs to concentrate on the new data passed on by the later dataset as contrasted and the prior one under that concept. In fact, oddity can be considered as an issue sort of differing qualities since it concentrates on the contrast between sentences of new coming reports and those of prior archives, while differing qualities concentrates on the contrast between sentences chose as of now and those to be chosen next. Upgrade summarization is most regularly utilized as a part of an element web environment. Allan et al. [1] produced worldly rundowns over news stories on a certain occasion, which could be considered as an early manifestation of overhaul summarization. As of late, one researcher [4] depicted an adaptable sentence scoring technique, SMMR got from MMR [5], where competitor sentences were chosen as per a joined foundation of inquiry significance and uniqueness with beforehand read sentences. Proposed work: In this paper we are proposing an empirical model of rank implementation with sink points by removing the redundant relevance scores of the retrieved results. The ranking algorithm works in two ways with following characteristics .Neighbor data objects are likely to have similar ranking scores and data objects have same structure with same ranking scores. A Network or graph can be constructed between the objects or nodes and edge can be formed between data objects or nodes if they related or close to each other, other nodes propagate the ranking until global state achieved. The algorithm initially sets the sink points to empty at initialization, generates a matrix for data manifold which gives the relation or edge between the two objects or nodes. Matrix gives the closed relation between the data objects if there exists an edge.it should be symmetrically normalized with diagonal matrix values with sum of respective intersection of row and column values, continue the process until all data objects are read or matrix gets constructed. Results can be ordered based on ranking of the Algorithm: THE NOVEL MRSP ALGORITHM The novel MRSP algorithm works as follows: Define the group of sink points Ps as empty. Form the matrix W for the data manifold, where Wmn = similiarity(xm, xn) if there is an edge linking xm and xn . Note that similarity(xm, xn) is the similarity between objects xm and xn . 3. Symmetrically normalize W as Sym = D−1/2WD−1/2 in which D is a diagonal matrix with its (m,m) element which is equal to the sum of the i-th row of W. 4. Repeat the below steps if |Ps| (a) Iterate f(t + 1) = _SIf f(t) + (1 − t)y until convergence, where 0 ≠¤ t m ∈Ps and 1 otherwise. (b) Let fâˆâ€" m denote the limit of the sequence {fi(t)}. Rank points xm ∈ r based on their ranking scores f .m. (c) Choose the top ranked point xm. Turn xm into a new sink point by moving it from r to Ps. 5. Result the sink points in the order that they were chosen into s from r Set a threshold value to limited value the sequence and with their corresponding ranking results and move it to other novel sink point and return in order of their selection. Architecture: End user forwards an input query to the search engine ,it in turn communicate with data base,it forwards the meta data to algorithm and computed the sink points based rank implementation and removes the redundant objects based on their scores and prepares the summary report or result. Summarized result in turn forwarded to search engine after retrieval top results from the set of total results. Conclusion: The novel MRSP approach addresses differing qualities and significance and criticalness in positioning. MRSP utilizes a complex positioning process over the information complex, which can characteristically find the most pertinent and imperative information articles exhibit in a record. MRSP can adequately keep repetitive articles from getting a high rank. The novel MRSP methodology fathoms the equivocal necessities of diverse questions given to the web index and produces profoundly significant question proposals and overhaul summarization. MRSP utilizes a complex positioning process over the information complex, which can regularly find the most important and paramount articles. In the interim, by transforming positioned articles into sink focuses on information complex, MRSP can adequately keep excess items from accepting a high rank. The incorporated MSRP methodology can attain significance, criticalness, differing qualities, and curiosity in a brought together process. Probes errands of redesign summarization and question proposal present solid exact execution of MRSP. References: [1] J. Allan, R. Gupta, and V. Khandelwal. Temporal summaries of new topics. In SIGIR ’01: Proceedingsof the 24th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in informationretrieval, pages 10–18, New York, NY, USA,2001. ACM. [2] R. Barzilay and M. Elhadad. Using lexical chains fortext summarization. In In Proceedings of the ACLWorkshop on Intelligent Scalable Text Summarization,pages 10–17, 1997. [3] S. Berkovsky, T. Baldwin, and I. Zukerman. Aspect based personalized text summarization. In AH ’08:Proceedings of the 5th international conference on Adaptive Hypermedia and Adaptive Web-Based Systems,pages 267–270, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2008.Springer-Verlag. [4] F. Boudin, M. El-Beze, and J.-M. Torres-Moreno. `A scalable MMR approach to sentence scoring for multi-document update summarization. In Coling2008: Companion volume: Posters, pages 23–26, Manchester, UK, August 2008. Coling 2008 Organizing Committee. [5] J. Carbonell and J. Goldstein. The use of mmr, diversity-based reranking for reordering documents and producing summaries. In SIGIR ’98: Proceedings of the 21st annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval, pages 335–336, New York, NY, USA, 1998. ACM. [6] J. M. Conroy and D. P. O’leary. Text summarization via hidden markov models. In SIGIR ’01: Proceedings of the 24th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval, pages 406–407, New York, NY, USA, 2001. ACM. [7] J. M. Conroy and J. D. Schlesinger. Classy query based multi document summarization. In In Proceedings of DUC’2005, 2005. [8] P. Du, J. Guo, J. Zhang, and X. Cheng. Manifold ranking with sink points for update summarization. In CIKM ’10: Proceeding of the 19th ACM conference on Information and knowledge management, Toronto, Canada, 2010. ACM. [9] G. Erkan and D. R. Radev. Lexrank: graph-based lexical centrality as salience in text summarization. J. Artif. Int. Res., 22(1):457–479, 2004. [10] E. Hovy, C. yew Lin, L. Zhou, and J. Fukumoto. Automated summarization evaluation with basic elements. In Proceedings of the Fifth Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC), 2006.

How does Browning show the balance of power between men and women in :: English Literature

How does Browning show the balance of power between men and women in My Last Duchess and Porphryria's Lover? In these two poems Robert Browning shows the balance of power in male-female relationships. Both are very similar in the way that they portray the women having more power than they should have, and the men not having the power they think they should have. In the first poem, 'My Last Duchess', Browning shows the Duke not having full control over his wife, the Duchess. In the second poem, 'Porphyria's Lover', the narrator does not have control because she is in a higher class and cannot be with him and she would lower her class and she is not ready to give it up. In 'My Last Duchess', the Duke is talking to someone about the dead Duchess. He first refers to power over the Duchess in the poem when he says about the painting of her behind the curtain, and if anybody wants to see it they would have to ask him first, 'Since none puts by The curtain I have drawn for you, but I' This shows that he still has control over her even though she has passed on. After that he writes about how every little detail seemed to please her, 'She had A heart how shall I say... too soon made glad, Too easily impressed; she liked whate'er She looked on, and her looks went everywhere.' The Duke gets quite angry at this point, 'The bough of cherries some officious fool Broke in the orchard for her,' This is about how a man broke into the orchard, took a bunch of cherry blossom and gave it to the duchess, and made her very pleased, which as you can understand he can give her far better things than a common man can give, 'As if she ranked My gift of a nine-hundred-years-old name With anybody's gift.' He gave her his old and important family name which most women would give their happiness to have, when she married him, which in the Duke's eyes is better than anything else in the world. He says that to comment on this behaviour is stooping down to a lower level, 'And I choose Never to stoop' The Duchess's behaviour becomes beyond tolerable next, 'Oh, sir, she smiled, no doubt, When'er I passed her; but who passed without Much the same smile? This grew; I gave commands; Then all smiles stopped together.' This greatly suggests that the Duke thought he had the power over the Duchess, and used it to order someone to kill her, although he doesn't directly say but he strongly hints it. But Browning cleverly wrote the

Simple Things in Life

Simple things in life Have you smiled or said hi to someone today? If not you need to look back and wonder why not. Doing something simple as that makes someone’s day, or maybe even making then smile for a second, anything will mean something. There are many kinds of kind things you can do for someone, you have large actions that you can do for someone or there are smaller actions. No matter what size and kind action can go a long way. The smaller actions are ones that usually mean the most.When it comes to me when I am feeling down, I don’t like to just complain, I feel that I will get on someone’s nerves. Therefore, if I ever see anyone not being there selves, I simply smile. To let them know I am here, maybe even say something to them to let them know I'm here and I care. Lets say that someone simply was walking by and said something nice with a smile it would make my day. Then I would have a smile on my face therefore I would smile at someone else. Hopefully this will cause a chain reaction and go a long way to make everyone a little less tense.It really is mind blowing that you can make a difference in someone’s day just listening or letting them know you are there. Have you ever been in the grocery store and the person in front of you says,† hey is it okay if I buy your items for you? † Well, if not it does not happen a lot. When it does it will make a difference in someone’s life. I say this because it has happened to me, it was like a couple of years ago, but to this day I remember this wonderful thing.Many people now days cant do these kinds of things, it’s understandable we are going times with this economy. This economy is making people even more stressed and down, this is why we need to remember to do good things. There are many different actions that you can take to make a change. There are those who can simply take a day off and go to a hospital. Then there are those who have the chances to ado pt a kid and change a life. Their not really hard thing to do but it means a lot.In the end when you see them smile, you see how much they really appreciate and it’s the best feeling ever. Over all you have a choice to make a difference in someone’s life, or just someone’s day. Rather it is large or small it does not matter in the size, you being kind and caring is all, just trying to make the world a happier place is wonderful. As I said before,† kind actions go a long way,† which can help make someone who had a hard day into a good day. Therefore the next time you see someone not smiling or down, make their day, smile or say hey.

Cricket a Threat to Other Games

Is Cricket’s massive appeal in India at the cost of other sports? ‘Cricket is a religion in  India’- a powerful statement that would bring a smile on all cricket lovers in India. However, rarely expressed is the other side of the coin – an issue of one man’s extreme popularity killing the very identity and existence of all other players in the mix. No Doubt that the game’s popularity has brought glory to millions of fans residing in India and worldwide, has instilled a sense of pride even in non-cricket-following Indian audiences†¦whenever the country has won, it  has brought laurels to the nation, elation to Indian people from all age groups-  be it a tiny toddler who craves for sixes from Sachin and Sehwag’s bat and or the keen cricket follower who deeply understands the nuisances of the game and gets elated whenever the little master,   Sachin crosses yet another milestone. But these cricket-savvy arguments rarely bring to light the other dark picture†¦ While cricket’s popularity has increased in India at a exponential rate, the fortunes of the other games has fallen to new lows. Hockey –our national game , in which India was considered a super-power has degraded so quickly that team India had failed   to even qualify for the  Olympics-the international sporting event in which India won medals in its golden era of hockey. It’s a pity that many international games like Motor-racing, Formula 1 races, golf, tennis, Athletics, gymnastics, swimming etc. on’t even find an Indian representation†¦. But the key question is? Is cricket responsible for this†¦The arguments are endless both in favor and against this argument. The supporters will say that all games have their separate, non-intersection identities, interests, fan-following and popularity scales†¦how come we attribute other sport’s losses on cr icket’s gains†¦ The critics will respond by equally strong arguments-if all the financial aids, funds, sponsors will be consumed by the ‘cricket’ giant ,wont the other games be starved of existence†¦ The conclusion is not easy to draw and one possible solution is to focus on aggressive advertisement of other sports, by roping in   government aids,   big corporate sponsors, the  media  and broadcasting people, the games’ iconic players as ambassadors etc†¦ Maybe someday we can produce our own version of   a Michael Schumacher or a Roger Federer†¦but for now cricket remains the undisputed king of Indian sports!! View point 2: Cricket dates back to 1721 in its trace in India, where it is more than a religion today. Being called a gentlemen game, it attracts millions of people all over the world. The popularity it pulls in the public made it a crazy game dominating any other game in India. Neither any game sustains nor collects popularity or spins the money as the cricket does. Because of this popularity other sports are ignored in our country that is about to extinct due to lack of proper encouragement from public and government. This dominance of cricket makes other games to feel low and the sportsmanship suffered inferiority complex in other areas. Arguments towards cricket We can’t blame one game for the fall of other game as there is nothing in game; everything is in the mind of people who enjoy the game. Cricket being craziest game is definitely a stylish and gentlemen game which at any cost shouldn’t be tagged with a line, â€Å"cricket is a curse for other games† which is more than religion in our country. Indian cricket has a history of holding many records often which are not easy even for the founders of the game. Though it is a lucrative game, it doesn’t mean there ends the professionalism. It is played at its standards and always allured millions of people across the world not only shaping the careers of youth but also earning them prestigious awards and rewards from the game and through endorsement. Popularity that cricket has is due to the influence which has been made by great cricketers like Kapil Dev, Ravi Shastri, Sunil Gavaskar, Sachin Tendulkar and many legendary performers. It is also the most favourite time pass for Indian youth and helps the nation to achieve integrity. Sponsors through advertisement help in boosting the economy and provide good business opportunities. Coaching centres and sports shops are established for cricket which helps them as a form of self employment. Arguments against cricket Cricket is posing threat to other games in India due it its mass popularity and makes the other sportsman suffer for their contributions. Government never supports such activities; and even if it supports will surely undermine the capacity by withdrawing the facilities provided for other sports. Cricket is a game of money, and nothing like professionalism exists in it. Youth pursue this game as profession for fame and money and the popularity it has among the mass. Players never show much attention once they are placed in national team. They will try to make fortune from the sponsors and other facilities provided. Betting is other area from which cricketers get easy money without playing game and has been in news for many matches which now brought the public to which match should be believed whether it is not fixed or fixed. Media hypes the game undermining the potential of other games and politicians do interfere to get their piece of cake in the dirty money making business. No professionalism, no sincerity. Money is the only purpose around which the game revolves.

Eastern Gary Kangaroo essays

Eastern Gary Kangaroo essays The Eastern grey kangaroo is in the Animalia kingdom. The phylum they belong to is the Chordata phylum. The class they belong to is the Mamalia class. The Diprotodontia is the order they belong to. The family they are a part of is the Macropodidae family. The Eastern gray Kangaroos scientific name is Macropus giganteus. They live in eastern Australia and the Tasmania Islands. The average rainfall is around 150-300mm. Eastern Grey Kangaroos live in wet areas. They live on the grass lands, forests and woodlands. They graze on strips of land called a home range.. Since they eat dry grass they drink much water. They mostly sleep in the shade under trees because of the heat. Eastern grey kangaroos are well adapted to their environment both behavioral and physiological. To keep from over heating they sleep during hot days and then go out to eat in late afternoon and early morning. They also can dig holes, so they can sleep in the cool soil. They have large dark eyes which gives them very accurate sight. Their ears can turn in any direction so they can pick up the faintest noise. The also have a good sense of smell. When they sense any danger at all they stomp the ground very hard to warn the other kangaroos of danger. They have specially designed tendons that stretch when they hop so they use up little energy hen they hop, so they can go for a long time to escape danger. They also have the ability to balance their weight on the tail to give a strong and deadly kick to other males and predators. Their tail also helps them balance when then hopping. The eating habits of an Eastern Kangaroo are mostly made of dry grass and shrubs. They graze on farmers property with the sheep and sometimes get shot for it. They do not eat very thick water grass at all. They do no eat it because it takes to much room up in their stomach. Eastern kangaroos have no natural day large predator. Their ears and eyes though suggest that the...

Construction and Building Trade Students Essay Example

Construction and Building Trade Students Essay Example Construction and Building Trade Students Essay Construction and Building Trade Students Essay This section is devoted to learning basic information about the students and their jobs. It contains different activities to learn more about the students, including activities about what the students’ responsibilities in their jobs are, what they might wear on the job, and when they might need to use language. A teacher can come in with the answers already and test’ the students’ knowledge, or he can ask the students to tell him.The purpose is to make the students think about what they need to know and what they already know, as well as for the English teacher to show an interest in the students’ careers (which are the reason they’re there). It is also important to look at how the classroom differs the from the students’ workplace, which is the final activity in this section. These activities lay the groundwork for the climate in the classroom, how much the students and their needs are respected, etc. It is very important for the teacher to establish ground rules and foster an environment of mutual respect.Organizational Structures In every business, there is some form of organization. This includes the structure of employees and supervisors, and chains of communication. Writing out an organogram’ can help the students to understand these chains of command and also learn who to communicate with and how to do so. The organogram focuses on asking students different questions about who is in charge in the organization, what different departments may exist, the different classifications of employees, etc.Students are shown an example and then asked to complete this for their own trade, or a trade example that t he teacher chooses. It is very important for students (especially those with limited language skills) to be very clear about the organizational structure within their organizations. Students should learn what their role is, who they will communicate with directly, who is supervising them, who they are supervising (if anyone), who to go to with problems, how to deal with instructions, etc.It can be hard for a student with limited language skills to discern this information from the workplace without any prior knowledge. In order to avoid overstepping boundaries, students should be well-equipped to know or learn the chains of command and communication within their own work places. Once the students have identified the company they’d like to work for, they must have the skills to interview with that company, which is also included in this section. When students have secured employment, they will need to be aware of how job responsibilities will be communicated, and how to respon d to them.This may include to-do lists, dictating tasks, or communicating with other employees on the job. There are many different situations the student may encounter on the job, and they should be prepared to handle each situation when possible. Vocabulary Students with limited language skills may not understand key vocabulary that is necessary for their jobs, which is why teachers should focus on providing them with words they will need to know. This is crucial so that students can understand what is being said to them on the job.The first activity is a personal job dictionary,’ which involves the student creating a list of words and definitions (or translations) that he or she will use frequently on the job. This is a very handy reference after the activity is completed, and also functions as a good introduction to on-the-job vocabulary. Once a basic vocabulary is established, students can write down any words or phrases that are unfamiliar to them, and do activities whi ch relate to figuring out the meaning of these words or phrases.They can practice using and reading these words and phrases with partners or in small groups, in order to simulate using them in the workplace. This is a very practical activity, as it gives students a chance to work with important words and phrases in real contexts. A final activity is to have the students look at pictures of objects they may encounter, and ask them to name them. Recognition is important. Also, this uses the student’s visual learning skills, which is also important. Some students will learn much better if they can see the objects than if they simply talk about them or read the words for them.

Meeting MBA Work Experience Requirements

Meeting MBA Work Experience Requirements MBA work experience requirements are the requirements that some Master of Business Administration (MBA) programs have for applicants and incoming students. For example, some business schools require that applicants have at least three years of work experience to apply to an MBA program.​ MBA work experience is the work experience that individuals have when they apply to an MBA program at a college, university or business school. Work experience typically refers to professional experience obtained on the job through part-time or full-time employment. However, volunteer work and internship experience also count as work experience in the admissions process. Why Business Schools Have Work Experience Requirements Work experience is important to business schools because they want to be sure that accepted applicants can contribute to the program. Business school is a give and take experience. You are able to obtain (or take) valuable knowledge and experience in the program, but you also provide (give) unique perspectives and experience to other students through participation in discussions, case analyses, and experiential learning. Work experience sometimes goes hand-in-hand with leadership experience or potential, which is also important to many business schools, particularly top business schools that take pride in churning out future leaders in entrepreneurship and global business. What Type of Work Experience Is Best? Although some business schools have minimum work experience requirements, particularly for executive MBA programs, quality is often more important than quantity. For example, an applicant with six years of professional finance or consulting experience might not have anything on an applicant with three years of work experience in a unique family business or an applicant with substantial leadership and team experiences in her community. In other words, there is not a resume or employment profile that guarantees acceptance into an MBA program. MBA students come from diverse backgrounds. It is also important to remember that admissions decisions sometimes hinge on what the school is looking for at the time. A school might desperately need students with finance experience, but if their applicant pool is flooded with people with a finance background, the admissions committee may actively start looking for students with more diverse or even non-traditional backgrounds. How to Get the MBA Work Experience You Need To get the experience you need to get into your MBA program of choice, you should focus on the factors that business schools value. Here are a few specific tips that will help you outline an application strategy. Your ability to work in a team environment is important in business school. Admissions committees want to evaluate your teamwork experience and capability. Make it easy for them by noting it in your resume or highlighting it in your essay.Leadership experience is important. If you havent supervised a team of people, seek out opportunities to manage up (i.e. create value for your company, get management to adopt your suggestions, etc.) at your job. And make sure you provide examples of your leadership experience in your application.  Ã‚  Ambition is a requirement for MBA students. This can be demonstrated through career progression. Before applying to business school, you should try to progress in your career by getting a promotion or taking on increased responsibilities.Business schools value achievements. Set personal and career goals, and then meet them. Get recognition from your boss or your company. Win awards.Develop a well-rounded application. MBA work experience is just one aspect of an application. You also need to write a good essay, get strong recommendation letters, score high on the GMAT or GRE and accomplish personal goals to make your application stand out among other candidates. If you dont have the work experience you need, make sure your academic experience stands out. Get your undergraduate transcripts in order, ace the quant section of the GMAT; demonstrate your academic enthusiasm by taking business, finance, or quant courses prior to applying; and make sure your essays highlight your written communication skills.

Change at Faslane Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Change at Faslane - Essay Example According to the study conducted Faslane was entirely operating under the watch of the Ministry of Defense and the Royal Navy. Due to need for minimizing its expenditure and cut costs, but retain its at the top of the base’s interest, Faslane introduced strategic change that witnessed the company decide to establish a partnering program with an independent entity that would help reduce the cost of expenditure and at the same time provide the most effective services to their client. As a matter of course, Faslane collaborated with Babcock, a subsidiary branch of Babcock International. The UK’s Ministry of Defense signed a five-year contract with Babcock Marine in 2002. This evolutional change came in the face of John Howie’s charge that had to make sure that Babcock meets the set targets and delivers a total savings cost of $76 million without negatively affecting any activities or services provided to the UK Navy. The strategic change that Faslane incorporated me asures that managed their strategies with absolute efficiency since it was necessary for Babcock to cut costs as the cut costs would come to them in form of profits. Furthermore, introduction of Babcock Marine would positively transform Faslnane because Babcock would make sure delivery of their services was effective and of high quality at a lower cost. In addition, Faslane is a huge firm with a large number of employees depicting that the cost of running its operations and the cost of maintaining its staff is always high. Therefore, when Babcock Marine Company came on board, Faslane relieved part of its expenditure in view of cutting costs by seconding to Babcock close to 300 Royal Navy personnel together with over 1’700 civil servants posts (The Stationery Office, 2010:7). It also left the remaining number of civil servants within the site, the police, Royal Marines, and sailors under the management of Babcock Marine. With reduced number of employees, Faslane had transforme d and approached an easier system of managing the company operations at a cost effective procedure. Furthermore, the strategy Faslane used to manage change was competent since its transformation styles resulted in the company’s transition of mindset under John Howie’s directive leadership model. This is because; collaborating with Babcock would ensure that Babcock changed the mindset of all the previous employees present at the site. As elaborated, these employees were mostly civilians who worked at the site for quite a long time and had established empires. This deterred them from seeing the importance of delivering service to the Royal Navy, which is their customer (Gapes, 2010:114). Hence, for Babcock to achieve its set goals and objectives, it was necessary to change the mindset of these employees who guarded the submarines as well as the ships. Changing the mindset would incorporate means of delivering service at the lowest possible expenditure. This means that, e ven if Babcock did not wish to renew its contract upon expiry, Faslane employees would still have the knowhow of cutting costs and ensuring effectiveness at the same time. Thus, strategic management of change at Faslane is long-term figurative due to John Howie’s educating and coaching system. Previously, if there were any changes at Faslane, they would take 56 days for them to reach

Discuss how Starbucks downsizing in the USA impacts their global Essay

Discuss how Starbucks downsizing in the USA impacts their global growth strategy - Essay Example It is worthwhile to mention that Starbucks considers factors such as purchasing power of potential customers, demographics, societal norms and standards, consumers’ attitudes, perceptions and inclination towards its brand, the competitors’ strategies and their pricing policy, the availability of raw material in host nations, the exchange rate fluctuations, corporate tax rates, interest rates and government support to formulate and implement its strategies and make decisions for long-term business growth and monetary gains. (Merced, 2008) and (White, 2008) The strategic planners at Starbucks started observing fall in sales revenue and volume in 2008 when USA suffered with a sub-prime property mortgage crises and trade deficits. This in turn resulted in bankruptcies and closures of many financial and production related business institutions thereby intensifying the unemployment issue and deteriorating future employment prospects. The skyrocketing international oil prices also resulted in inflation that then forced customers to tighten their belts and demand fewer luxurious products such as Automobiles and Coffee. Hence, Starbucks planned to expand its Chinese operations where a large pool of potential customers has an inclination towards branded products offered by supranational organizations. Chinese government also supported Starbucks so that it could enhance interaction and communication with Chinese farmers in Yunnan (an agricultural area), which produces over 30,000 tons of Coffee Beans. In simple words, this region alone accounts for over 95% production of Coffee Beans, so Chinese officials seek help and guidance of Starbucks in business management, production and marketing process to ensure higher yield per acre and premium quality for domestic use and exports. (White, 2008) and (Haoting, 2009) Indeed, China is a best available alternative for Starbucks since it has

How the Industrial Revolution, post 1865, influenced migration and Research Paper

How the Industrial Revolution, post 1865, influenced migration and expanded civilization - Research Paper Example In this second industrial revolution, discovery and invention, acting as the catalysts played a major role in industrial and economic growth of the nation. These developments coupled with the developments in transportation and communications were responsible for the formation of organized industries with the emergence of big business empires in various industrial sectors such as steel and oil. Consequently the markets grew deep and wide for catering to the needs of the suppliers and consumers. These developments resulted into migration of people from different parts of the country to the urban industrial centers and different parts of the world to the US with the urban growth taking place at a rapid pace. These migrations were responsible for the diverse cultural background in the society. Industrial development The growth of industries was very fast during this period. The consumption of steel is an indicator for industrial development. The consumption of steel in the industrial and construction sector increased during this period and fuelled the growth of steel industry. The mass production of steel through innovative methods introduced by Carnegie made it cheaper and the demand for steel increased exponentially. This has accelerated construction of railroads across the country which stimulated the growth of business and industries by rendering mobility to the goods manufactured for reaching the customers throughout the country. Similarly, the growth of oil industry has changed the way the people were living in the US as its consumption was closely linked to general industrial growth, transportation and social life. Invention of telephone and telegraph aided industrial and economic growth further. â€Å"†¦the most dramatic improvement in the speed, breadth and reliability of news cov erage came with Samuel Morse's invention of the telegraph. Newspapers became the major customers of the telegraph companies, and the cost of telegraph transmissions led to the formation of wire services like the Associated Press, which was founded as a cooperative venture by New York newspapers in 1848† (Stephens). Freedoms to press, free market economy and the capitalist system of the country encouraged entrepreneurship, and it attracted people from all over the world to the US. The opportunities available in the industrial centers for employment, profession or education caused migration of people to urban areas. The new techniques used in agriculture have increased productivity. The proportion of people employed in agriculture has come down. The agricultural laborers from rural areas migrated to cities in search of employment. Steckel states, â€Å"The importance of migration to urban growth is also indisputable. Because birth rates were low but death rates were high, migra tion fueled urban growth during the 19th century. Indeed, many cities and towns would have declined in size without an inflow of people that replaced the excess of deaths over births† (p. 1). Capital formation and emergence of corporate companies Referring to New York Stock Exchange, Teweles & Bradley says, â€Å"The vast development of the railroads was particularly important to the Exchange since those corporations were the chief issuers of securities in the trading market. About 70,000

Works of art as inspiration grade 8 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Works of art as inspiration grade 8 - Essay Example nts in describing the picture, identifying details that could tell about the circumstances during that time, recognize things, places, people or facial expressions that would inform about the setting. It also aims to develop the children’s critical thinking, expressing their criticisms in words in an organized fashion, naming things they observe in the picture and relating what is happening in the picture to their experiences and observations. In addition, the students should be able to infer from the picture what it is all about and discuss with their classmates whatever information they grasped from the picture. The lesson will start with an introduction of the painter and his painting: Paul Kane is one of Canada’s most popular painters who was born in Ireland in 1810 but emigrated to York, now known as Toronto, by the age of nine. He travelled a lot to many places to learn from the masters in the field of painting which enhanced his skill and allowed him to meet people who eventually inspired him in his work. Scene in the Northwest is just one of Kane’s many paintings which became very famous because it is now recorded to be the most expensive painting from a Canadian artist doubling the price of the second most expensive Canadian painting (National Gallery of Canada Archives). Presenting the picture, the lesson will be executed in a similar fashion to this: Student C: The ice is thick and it is impossible for cars to travel because they might sink in or get stuck on the road. Also, there are not many people in the area so there are probably not much stores or gasoline stations where they can buy their needs or ask help from in case their car can not move. Student C: The area behind the people is very wide but there are no other people or houses besides those we can see. I think they are in a place like the northernmost or southernmost parts of the globe where only scientists go to, to study the weather there or find new discoveries that can make them

Financial Markets and Instruments Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Financial Markets and Instruments - Assignment Example Under the regulatory instrument, emphasis is on the use f commercial paper by larger corporations or companies who have had the backing of an issuing bank, promising to make settlement for the quotation on the face of the commercial before or on the date specified. Like in most other financial jurisdictions, the issuance of commercial paper is not guaranteed by a collateral and so the need for strict regulations that ensure that such instruments on the money market are used only by corporations that have been rated with excellent credit rating status (Fombrun, 2012). 2. At different times in the economic management of the country, the government of the Kingdom has had the need to generate both long term and short term financing. As far as short term financing is concerned, emphasis has always been on the use of short term financing to take care of short term debt financing. One of the commonest instruments used in this case is overdraft, whereby it transmits cash that are beyond avai lable funds (Greenley and Foxall, 2011). On the long term also, the use of equity investment ranks as the commonest form of financing that the government undertakes. Often, this is done by targeting local industries and buying and holding shares of the stocks of such businesses for projected capital gains and dividend growth. Commonly, equity investment has been selected in cases where investments have been proven to have high information asymmetries and moral hazard (Drumwright and Murphy, 2001). 3. With a global rank of 40, the Macro Economy Meter (2013) rates the total outstanding debt of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia as $134 billion. Of this total outstanding debt, the share of public debt has been calculated to be 12.9% of the gross domestic product of the country, coming up to $6.6 billion. According to the CIA World Factbook, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia as of 31 December 2012 had a total outstanding external debt of $127.4 billion. By this, it means the government of the Kingdo m owed this amount to public and private entities that were nonresident of the country and thus repayment had to be done in either foreign currency, goods or services (Fombrun, 2005). Because these external debts are paid through foreign currency, they are calculated based on exchange rate base rather than the use of purchasing power parity terms. 4. Since 2001, the annual total value of new borrowing by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has generally been experiencing and upward rise trend. This means that the rate of borrowing done by the government has been increasing consistently by the year. In the graph below, it would be noted that but for the periods from 2003 to 2005, and 2008 to 2009, the annual total value of debt has been increasing, indicating a rise in new borrowing. Source: Marco Economy Meter (2013) Based on readings from the graph, McAlister and Ferrell (2012) have argued that the new borrowing that is done by the Saudi government on a monthly basis is US $1.2 billion, co ming up to an annual total of $14.4 billion. With this value, the debt-to-income ratio of Saudi Arabia has been estimated to be very high, leading to annual per capita income of $25,000. 5. The use of stripped coupons is not illegitimate in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia but not a commonly preferred form of debt financing or financial capital generator. This is because in the use of stripped coupons, there are often two stripped parties, one of which receives the principle as zero-coupon bond when the bond is

Completing the GDP Rates Table Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Completing the GDP Rates Table - Essay Example Name: Instructor: Course: Date: Completing the GDP Rates Tables TABLE 1: USA (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) Year GDP in US$ GDP % growth Pop. ... 35 2000 1075.57 1.25 30,689 1.24 271.9 1.339 178,940.9 230,838.3 -23,023 1.67 2.343 2001 1107.46 0.45 31,021 0.27 252.5 1.373 163,424.1 216,267.9 -13,717 1.68 2.417 2002 1154.95 0.94 31,373 -0.98 225.8 1.404 160,922.7 209,087.7 -48,167 1.69 2.578 2003 1214.60 0.2 31,676 0.80 275.8 1.443 169,923.7 221,594.7 -51,671 1.70 2.626 2004 1290.19 0.92 32,048 0.93 185.6 1.470 189,879.9 256,359.8 -45,678 1.7 1 2.785 2005 1368.73 1.35 32,359 0.40 221.3 1.502 211,898.7 290,384.3 -67,897 1.72 2.89 2006 1450.40 1.24 32,723 1.13 200.3 1.531 524,075 487,674 -56,432 1.76 2.345 2007 1529.58 0.98 33,115 0.69 213.8 1.565 534,718 505,055 -78,456 1.73 2.964 2008 1603.41 1.35 33,506 0.75 237.1 1.602 563,075 538,654 24,421 1.81 3.104 a) Column 5 = column 2 divided by column 4 [i.e. (2)/(4)] b) Column 10 = column 8 minus column 9 [i.e. (8)-(9)] c) Column 11 = column 8 divided by column 2 and multiplied by 100 [i.e. (8)/(2)*100] d) Column 12 = column 9 divided by column 2 and multiplied by 100 [i.e. (9)/(2)*10 0] How to do this assignment, 1. You should complete tables 1 and 2 on the page 1 which I will upload it. 2. Compare the GDP rates of growth and the Trade Balance of CANADA and the US and try to draw any conclusions based on economic theory The GDP rate of growth for U.S has been increasing constantly since 1994 until 2001. The growth rate for Canada has no particular sequence as it has been constantly increasing and decreasing as a result of the economic conditions. The trade balance for U.S is less than that of Canada over the years. Levi (2009) describes that Canada is the tenth largest economy as measures in US dollars. This is as a result of the importance of its primary sector with more revenue from the logging and oil industries. The manufacturing industry as well as the automobile

Financial Markets and Instruments Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Financial Markets and Instruments - Assignment Example Under the regulatory instrument, emphasis is on the use f commercial paper by larger corporations or companies who have had the backing of an issuing bank, promising to make settlement for the quotation on the face of the commercial before or on the date specified. Like in most other financial jurisdictions, the issuance of commercial paper is not guaranteed by a collateral and so the need for strict regulations that ensure that such instruments on the money market are used only by corporations that have been rated with excellent credit rating status (Fombrun, 2012). 2. At different times in the economic management of the country, the government of the Kingdom has had the need to generate both long term and short term financing. As far as short term financing is concerned, emphasis has always been on the use of short term financing to take care of short term debt financing. One of the commonest instruments used in this case is overdraft, whereby it transmits cash that are beyond avai lable funds (Greenley and Foxall, 2011). On the long term also, the use of equity investment ranks as the commonest form of financing that the government undertakes. Often, this is done by targeting local industries and buying and holding shares of the stocks of such businesses for projected capital gains and dividend growth. Commonly, equity investment has been selected in cases where investments have been proven to have high information asymmetries and moral hazard (Drumwright and Murphy, 2001). 3. With a global rank of 40, the Macro Economy Meter (2013) rates the total outstanding debt of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia as $134 billion. Of this total outstanding debt, the share of public debt has been calculated to be 12.9% of the gross domestic product of the country, coming up to $6.6 billion. According to the CIA World Factbook, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia as of 31 December 2012 had a total outstanding external debt of $127.4 billion. By this, it means the government of the Kingdo m owed this amount to public and private entities that were nonresident of the country and thus repayment had to be done in either foreign currency, goods or services (Fombrun, 2005). Because these external debts are paid through foreign currency, they are calculated based on exchange rate base rather than the use of purchasing power parity terms. 4. Since 2001, the annual total value of new borrowing by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has generally been experiencing and upward rise trend. This means that the rate of borrowing done by the government has been increasing consistently by the year. In the graph below, it would be noted that but for the periods from 2003 to 2005, and 2008 to 2009, the annual total value of debt has been increasing, indicating a rise in new borrowing. Source: Marco Economy Meter (2013) Based on readings from the graph, McAlister and Ferrell (2012) have argued that the new borrowing that is done by the Saudi government on a monthly basis is US $1.2 billion, co ming up to an annual total of $14.4 billion. With this value, the debt-to-income ratio of Saudi Arabia has been estimated to be very high, leading to annual per capita income of $25,000. 5. The use of stripped coupons is not illegitimate in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia but not a commonly preferred form of debt financing or financial capital generator. This is because in the use of stripped coupons, there are often two stripped parties, one of which receives the principle as zero-coupon bond when the bond is

Stop All the Clocks Essay Example for Free

Stop All the Clocks Essay In contrast to this poem is Stop All the Clocks by W.H. Auden. This poem uses no language that is out of the ordinary, and is in no way controversial. Though it is deep and sorrowful it isnt as aggressive as Havisham. Auden uses an AABBCCDDEE scheme which is a very organised rhyming scheme known as rhyming couplets. Very regular grammar and all of the verses are separated as you normally would do. He wants the language to do more for the poem than the grammar. The poem is about the death of a man (perhaps a friend or lover) referring to W.H. Audens sexual preferences and his feelings afterwards. He does not use any metaphors but some of the rhyming couplets he uses could be seen as unusual, cut off the telephonegive the dog a juicy bone shows that he has paid high detail to everything that he wants to take notice, nothing in the world is to be left untold of the awful tragedy that he has suffered. A different angle on separation was taken up by John Donne when he wrote Valediction: Forbidden Mourning for his wife when he had to leave on a business trip. Although it was different considering the fact that the two of them knew they were going to reunite. Donne wrote about their love and he compared it to massive events that were far more important than their romance to anyone else, but to John his romance was bigger than the universe, but at times as simple as a compass as it comes together. He says that As virtuous men pass mildly away let us melt comparing their parting to the death of a good man, he did this because, when he wrote the poem, good men died with no fear of death, because they knew they were going to go to heaven. Symbolising that they will have nothing to fear from being apart from one another. He also compares his love to the Universe, Trepidation of the spheresthough greater, still is innocent meaning that their parting is like the movement of the spheres, an ancient belief that the universe was divided into spheres. This symbolises that their love is greater than earth quakes, but their parting will not harm them. The grammar in this poem is standard, and there is no rhyming scheme. He shows that great feelings can be achieved through just writing from the heart. The form relates to the subject of the poem, because in separation, nothing unexpected will happen to them. Conclusion I think that although Havisham is the shortest and most controversial of the three poems it is the best. It is so surreal and unusual. The way Duffy turns Havisham into a monster bent on revenge then turns her back into an innocent girl who has been abandoned by the only person she ever loved is sheer genius. Although Valediction is very deep and thoughtful it just does not compare to the outrageousness of Havisham and Stop all the clocks is just boring compared to this. I think Havisham has to be one of the best poems I have ever read. I think that what makes Havisham my favourite though is the fact that is so fresh. I dont know how Duffy came up with such an awe inspiring poem but if I had to pick a poem to read for the rest of my life, Havisham would be unquestionably it.

Postmodernism in the media

Postmodernism in the media Introduction to postmodernism, the media and the real The increasingly mediatised culture we live in today has lead us to be dominated by and dependent upon the production and consumption of images. Notions of objectivity and empiricism in the photographic have long since disappeared, but can we still locate our sense of the real in images? This dissertation will use many theories and ideas that discuss the role of photography, postmodernism and the real within todays culture and media. It will start with a discussion of the reasoning for the initial shift back towards the real. This shift mainly stemmed from postmodernism and the media. Postmodernism dealt with the idea of never ending reference and the fear about post-modern culture was that this never ending reference meant that all grip on reality had disappeared. There was a wish to return to something more stable and basic: the real? Photographers started to try and return to the purely descriptive photography from the times before the mass referencing of postmodernism. Due to pos tmodernism, we are constantly searching for meaning and analysis in images. This constant analysis of images has exhausted our trust and interest in the photograph; there was a need to create images different from the ones we see every day in the media in order to re-find our trust in the image as truth and as art. Which will lead onto looking at how, due to advances in technology and developments in photography, the new fast changing everyday image led to our relationships and emotions becoming mediatised. We re-live events and experiences through images, which leads to a loss of the real. We remember the image rather than the event. The media have a huge influence on events, advertising even our emotions and relationships. I will look at how some photographers can play a part in the manipulation and influence from the media that seems so much to control us and shape our world. But some photographers began to step away from the media, and postmodernism, older, slower technologies b egan to re-emerge. The single image produced from these methods of working could bring back the processes of our memory that have been complicated due to the sheer amount of information we get from other technologies. This leads onto the main question posed in this dissertation: can we ever (re)find the real? How much is this notion of the real influenced and shaped by the media influence in our world? Some would say that even photos that appear to be descriptive cannot escape being subjected to analysis and placed within a context of viewing. Maybe they can never be void of reference and construction? Maybe images can never provide the clear, stable version of reality that we want from them? Will we continue to be consumed by images, or is there a future beyond the cycle of referencing left by postmodernism? Can we ever (re)find authenticity, originality and a true form of photography that can direct us to the real? How has this affected our media? And how has it influenced the media to change and shape our world? Chapter One What caused people to lose a sense of the real? Postmodernism emerged as an art form in the mid to late 1980s and seemed to grow from and relate to the modernist movement. Postmodernism simply rejected the idea of originality; the original, new element within a photograph was replaced with the concept of reference and quotation. Finding something authentic and original as an idea was discarded. Essentially, postmodernism is the end of the new as something new within Postmodernism is looked upon as the byproduct of re-combining one or more different elements from within an already existing culture. An image has to refer to, use or quote another image or text, which will have referred to another image, which will have referred to a further different image and so on; a never-ending reference has begun and we begin to lose a sense of the real. Postmodernist culture enjoyed this play with signs of never ending reference, where the more you played the less anyone seemed to know what reality it was touching (Bate 2004)(1) Some early Postmodernist photographers include Andy Warhol, David Hockney, Edward Weston and Cindy Sherman. Shermans untitled films stills refer to trashy Hollywood films. These early works of hers were cleverly named Untitled then Film Still no indicating that they can be given any meaning and could refer to an actual specific existing film. The viewer is given a reference which leads to yet another representation, not reality itself. In short: here is a picture from a film, but I am not going to tell you which one, a message complicated by the fact that the photographs were not actual films stills. (Bate2004)(2) The factor that was feared about postmodernism is that the never-ending reference meant that all grip on reality has disappeared and this lead to a wish to return to a simpler, more stable and basic way of working. We have lost a sense of what is real within art and culture due to reality being discarded in favour of mass inter-textual referencing. But the fear about post-modern culture was that there no longer an anchor to reality at all, that reality had disappeared into an endless chain of other representations. (Bate 2004)(3) There began to be a wish to return to the values of the straight and pure photograph of modernism and everything that post modernism had rejected. A wish to return to something stable and basic, a wish to take a purely descriptive photograph. Some photographers managed to create purely descriptive work, an example of this could be Justin Partykas work The East Anglians. This ongoing body of work about the rural and agricultural area of East Anglia is a purely descriptive study of the landscape and people, who live, work and own the land in it. But the title The East Anglians could refer to Robert Franks The Americans a post World War II look beneath the surface of American life. Is anybody of work free from this postmodernist trap every photographer seems to fall into. The rise in postmodernism lead to photography being used more as an art form, and began to become popular with both artists and the public. It was no longer a low form of art and became widely accepted. Photography was used more by everyone and so began to develop further, leading to major advances in technology. With the invention of mobile phone cameras and the internet and email, it is easy to take a photograph and send it anywhere in the world in seconds. These new technologies mediatised our relationships and emotions. Yet despite the idea that these mobile technologies bring us all closer to each other, we are caught up in a contradiction, since they increasingly mediatise our relationships to one another. To look at something it has to be kept at a distance. (Bate 2004)(4) With digital technology today, there is no longer a need to wait for photographs to be processed, no need to wait until the end of a holiday or event to see the photographs and an less limited amount of photographs can be taken on that one camera as opposed to the 24 or 36 with the most commonly used 35mm negative film. This means people are taking so many photographs of everything rather than considering what particularly they would like photographs of. An unlimited sense has been brought into photography. This has lead to a loss in the real, and a loss in the value of photography. Previously at an important event such as a holidays, birthdays or weddings, families would use probably just one camera and probably only one or 2 films per event, some families using just one film per year for every event, resulting in a few photographs being taken which would then be put in an album and often reviewed. Now with digital technologies, people tend to have many cameras per family and at eve ry event, small or large, hundreds of photographs can get taken, the difference being these would then be put on a computer and most would never be looked at. This is where we have lost the value of photography, before digital it was precious, every photograph was considered, thought about and enjoyed afterwards. This has also lead to us remembering the photograph of the event rather than the actual event. If we spend all day photographing what is going on around us, we will remember just those photographs and not what was actually happening; we remember the image rather than the real. Perhaps to properly look at something you have to take a step back, away from our fast pace society. The loss of the real in postmodernism and now in the digital era has left artist and photographs wishing to go back to simpler times. New art is often now made up of redundant processes which are older and slower which then sets this new art form apart from the images and photographs we see in everyday media culture. New technologies are being left in favour of older and slower ones which are apparently more real. More traditional and simple methods of photography seemed to be linked to the concept of the real, as they are different from the photographs we see every day on the news and in the media. Hal Foster in his book The Return of the Real says he feels that we have not left postmodernism completely, it has become what is normal to us; we have a postmodernism realism. The consequence of this that we change the way we want reality to be constructed. Foster feels that simply postmodernism has become dà ©modà ©. (Foster 1996)(5) Photography now draws on elements of film, advertisements, postcards etc. to create imagery that is inter-textual and referential to those other pictures, these new images create the realism of this visually mediated culture; post-modern realism is now the normal. Along with the development of photography, video and film also began to expand and change. Photography was the only way of stopping time, a photograph was a moment captured in time on film forever. Now a freeze frame like that can come from any number of sources. Photographs began to be pulled from existing moving images a video. This is achievable by anyone as DVDs or VHSs or even live television can be paused, creating a freeze frame a moment, captured in time. What was once the sole privilege and product of the photograph is now equally likely to be the result of a cinema or video freeze-frame (Bate 2004)(6) This has changed photography, as now instead of the image being of an actual event, they were now selected from the way the event had already been interpreted. Newspapers and news channels were no longer using photographers to capture the perfect picture; they were using video and selecting the image from the video. This is called second order realism. Selecting the decisive moment is still dependant on a person knowing when to push a button, but is now selecting a still from an already decided and produced moving image. A photograph is supposed to be a moment locked in time but now it is more often than not pulled out of an image bank full of video freeze-frames. Film and video has stolen what makes photography special the decisive moment. Therefore the specificity and specialness of photography has to find itself in some other attribute of photography. Chapter 2 How does the media shape our world and the concept of real? Mass media is a huge part of our lives today, and has to influence us in some way. Images have become our reality due to the media. A news story would not impact without an image, and as soon as an image is shown it is a reality and remembers as if the viewer was at the event themselves. Guy Debord in Comments on the Society of the Spectacle talks about how developments in photographs and mass media have contributed to what Debord describes as the society of the spectacle. In the spectacular world images and representations become our reality and everything exists as and for images. Real-life experiences become repressed and events take place in a mediated, pseudo-reality. Experience, events, and even our emotions, both on an individual and public scale are heavily mediated. Where images refer to one another endlessly the originality and authenticity of them are abolished. As a result of this, it is claimed we have lost any relation to the real. The spectacle has now spread itself to the point where it now permeates all reality (Debord 1988) (7) Victor Burgin studied people who believed that media events were their own memories in Possessive, Pensive and Possessed. Sociologists at the University of Provence found that people can become confused and merge their own personal memories with memories from scenes of films or other media productions. I saw at the cinema would simply become I saw. (Burgin 2006)(8) This is called a screen memory, where you remember something from a film instead of from real life. It is in place of and conceals a similar suppressed memory. In the past, big events did happen but people knew less about them as there was no type of media production to let them know. It rarely went beyond those involved. Now because of media we all know about every event, and add these events to our memories, even though we have not actually physically experienced them. We forget our real experiences and replace them with events from the media. For example, the 9/11 terrorist attacks in New York City will be remember by everyone worldwide, but only a small number of people actually experienced and saw the event, but everyone will remember the event and visualise it from the images they saw. When thinking of these terrorist attacks many people will think of this and many other images which were taken at the event. These images will be in their memory as if they were in New York City on that day, meaning they remember events from a media production which has now become their own memory which relates back to Burgins study into screen memories. Our reaction to big events such as the 9/11 terrorist attacks is to experience and re-live the event through the images which are presented to us. Thomas De Zengotita talks of how there is a bubble of mediated representation which he calls the blob. In the world of the blob, momentous catastrophes such as the 9/11 terrorist attacks are almost poignant enough to burst the bubble, Something like that will feel as if it might be sharp enough, as if it might pierce the membrane and slice the pulp. (De Zengotita 2007)(9) With the developments in digital photography and manipulation we can find that we re-live and experience events that did not even happen. We look at a manipulated image, take it to be the truth and believe what is in there. The media can now influence us to believe something that is not true. Once we have seen the images, manipulated or not it is not surprising that our reaction is to experience and re-live the event through those images, adding them to our bank of mediated events in our memory. In other words, it all becomes part of the spectacle. Conclusion In this dissertation I have looked into postmodernism within photography and how this has changed what is the real and how the media influence the real and our emotions and shapes our world today. The rise in postmodernism meant a no-ending reference for every photograph, film etc. On photograph refers to another photograph which refers to a video, which in turn refers another photograph and so on. There was nothing new; post modernism was the end of the new. This results in a loss of the real, a loss of just purely descriptive photography. This loss of the real within photography is only enhanced by developments in photography making it accessible to everyone meaning the value of a photograph and photography is not as high. Which in turn is was not helped by the development in video and film, anyone being able to create a freeze-frame, a moment trapped in time by pausing their DVD, VHS or live TV player. Photography has lost what was special about it the decisive moment. Therefore, older more traditional photographic methods have begun to be used again, in a search for the real within photography. Furthermore, the media document every event and present their interpretation of this event to people in images. People experience and re-live that event through the images the media presented to us, and add those images into their own memories even though they did not actually experience the event themselves. This leads to losing what we know as reality. In my opinion, postmodernism and the no-ending reference meant that we are now always looking for analysis of a photograph and a reason and reference behind it. We cannot appreciate the beauty of a photograph if we are looking for something else within it, and that is where and why we end up losing a sense of the real. Developments in photography and film also have not helped with this, and a limit on the amount of photographs we take would mean the images can assist our memory not be our memory. This sense of the r eal is not lost, but could be forgotten within photography, and taking a step back just to look at a photograph as a whole would bring back the real into that photograph. References Postmodernist culture enjoyed this play with signs of never ending reference, where the more you played the less anyone seemed to know what reality it was touching (Bate 2004) In short: here is a picture from a film, but I am not going to tell you which one, a message complicated by the fact that the photographs were not actual films stills. (Bate2004) But the fear about post-modern culture was that there no longer an anchor to reality at all, that reality had disappeared into an endless chain of other representations. (Bate 2004) Yet despite the idea that these mobile technologies bring us all closer to each other, we are caught up in a contradiction, since they increasingly mediatise our relationships to one another. To look at something it has to be kept at a distance. (Bate 2004) Postmodernism has become dà ©modà ©. (Foster 1996) What was once the sole privilege and product of the photograph is now equally likely to be the result of a cinema or video freeze-frame (Bate 2004) The spectacle has now spread itself to the point where it now permeates all reality (Debord 1988) I saw at the cinema would simply become I saw. (Burgin 2006) Something like that will feel as if it might be sharp enough, as if it might pierce the membrane and slice the pulp. (De Zengotita 2007) Bibliography Books FOSTER H; The Return of The Real; The Avant-Garde at the End of The Century; 1996 DEBORD G; Comments on the Society of the Spectacle; 1988 DE ZENGOTITA T; Mediated: How The Media Shape Your World; 2007 Essays BATE D; After Thought, Source 40: 30-33; Belfast: Photo Works; 2004 BATE D; After Thought II, Source 41: 34-39; Belfast: Photo Works; 2004 BURGIN V; Possessive, Pensive and Possessed; The Cinematic, London, Whitechapel Ventures Ltd 2007 Websites http://www.esquire.com/features/ESQ0903-SEP_FALLINGMAN http://www.justinpartyka.com http://www.cindysherman.com/index.php http://www.lensculture.com/bate1.html

ADHD Prescription Abuse at Northeastern :: College Study Drugs Education Essays

ADHD Prescription Abuse at Northeastern Northeastern middler Gary Brown* reclines his small frame on a couch in his Mission Hill apartment. He looks like a patient on a psychiatrist's couch as he dictates his history of abuse with Ritalin and Adderall. â€Å"I started going to concerts with a friend who had a prescription and whose nickname was Bradderall,† Brown said. Ritalin and Adderall are prescription drugs commonly used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD. Brown has never been diagnosed with ADHD but he started taking the drugs recreationally as a college freshman to have energy for concerts and for partying into the early morning hours. Soon after, Brown began taking Ritalin to study for exams. Brown was taking the pills about six times a week. â€Å"It’s pretty easy to get,† Brown said. The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) cites Ritalin, or Methylphenidate, as a central nervous system stimulant that has a focusing and calming effect on children and adults diagnosed with ADHD. The National Institute of Mental Health estimates that 3–5% of the general population has ADHD, which is characterized as hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention. This statistic indicates that one child in every classroom in America has ADHD. But Brown is not part of this 3-5% of the population. For Brown and others without the disorder, ADHD medications increase dopamine levels in the brain, giving the user a sense of euphoria similar to cocaine. Students at Northeastern University as well as other campuses are consuming these drugs for better academic performance and a cheap high on the college party scene. Students are taking Ritalin, Addrall, and the newest drug on the market, Conserta, either orally or crushing and snorting them to study, party, or lose weight. In some cases, kids are melting them down and shooting them up. According to Northeastern students, the drugs are very cheap and very accessible. â€Å"Drugs like Adderall, Ritalin, and Conserta that make you focused and industrious can be very useful,† said Jeff Smith*, a Northeastern student. Like Brown, Smith had never taken these prescriptions commonly called â€Å"study drugs† before coming to college. Smith cites increasing academic pressure as a reason for using the pills to focus and gain an edge. Both Brown and Smith receive free pills from their friends who have prescriptions but they would expect to pay $2-$5 a pill if they had to. In 2000 , NIDA’s Community Epidemiology Work Group found the abuse of methylphenidate (Ritalin) in Boston to be prevalent amongst middle and high school students; especially in middle- and upper-middle class communities.

How Changing the Structure of an Organization Can Provide a Satisfying

The people employed within a company hold the key to a more productive and efficient organization. The way in which people are managed and developed at work has major effects upon quality, customer service, organizational flexibility and costs. For any employee to be successful, businesses are starting to recognize the need for employees to be fully engaged within the company and are constantly seeking ways in which they can increase employee engagement and also motivate people to want to come to work rather than have to. Employee development is a process that has been created to help individuals within organizations to acquire and maintain a confidence and commitment that will improve performance and enhance the skills and knowledge base of the individuals and the organization as a whole. Developing people is therefore a critical process because it allows individuals to benefit in terms of personal competence, growth, adaptability and continual employability, thus creating a sens e of job satisfaction. Within this essay we will be looking at key strategies that organizations adopt in order to successfully develop and engage their staff so as to benefit both the individual and the company as a whole. `I was always conscious that I was making people come to work when they did not want to. They would rather be doing other things. So we created the conditions whereby people not only had to come to work in order to earn a living - they also wanted to come to work.' Ricardo Semler (1992) To improve the motivation and performance in the workplace people development should be business led and strategic. Longer term goals and perspectives give coherency and direction to its employees over time. Furthermore, vision is the p... ...iend at work'. If you put all this into place you would cultivate what the Gallup organisation illustrates as `employee engagement'. i.e. an employee who is entirely concerned and passionate about their occupation. The essence of Peter Senge's views are that the majority of people would like to feel as motivated about their work as they do about their lives. Major organisations can adopt clear objectives in an attempt to create a engaged workforce, however through my own research I have discovered that the areas I have touched upon are just tip of the iceberg in terms creating an environment in which people will wake up on a Monday morning with the same feel good factor that is present at the weekend. In an ideal world the preferred type of organisation is one that listens to and reflects upon the heartbeat of the organisation - its employees and what they value.

How Modern Technology Affects Library Books

The importance for polished English remains high on the priority among many firms as a basic requirement. The emphasis for proficiency in the English language starts from school for most, but most adults do not maintain a habit of constantly improving and updating their ability to read and write. Speaking has become a part of our daily lives and our reliance on English has turned it into the first language of many Singaporeans. Our heavy reliance on English gives us an edge when practising it throughout our daily lives. This however comes at the cost of having too much comfort and usually leads to arrogance that stops us from constantly improving and updating our language skills. The habit of good English could not only help with a person's daily life but also with any possible career prospectus. The ability to be more qualified than your competition in terms of articulation gives the everyday working adult an edge towards a better prospectus. It's a form of communication that exceeds the boundaries of Singapore, reinforcing its importance as a major world language. Other than simply being a means of communication, it also serves as the most universal form of articulation. A person can express his or her thoughts more concisely when using the appropriate language in a certain context. This means of expression precedes many generations before and was passed down to most citizens as their first language. Language proves to be timeless in its use and the relentless pursuit of self improvement can begin with good English.

Changes to Stoke Bruerne between (1800 – 2001)

Stoke Bruerne was a small farming and market village. The main function of Stoke Bruerne changed because of transport. The Grand Junction canal got its act of parliament in 1793. (Canal side walk). The canal had a major impact on the village of Stoke Bruerne. The village of Stoke Bruerne developed around the canal. (Maps). Before the canal arrived, Stoke Bruerne was a very small-populated area with about 150 people living in, what was a very agricultural village. The first major canal was built between London and Birmingham, this runs through the village of Stoke Bruerne. (Visit). There was a major objection to this plan by the Rector, the two plans that were drawn up went straight through the middle of his garden cutting it in two. He lost his battle and the chosen plan went ahead. When the canal was built the canal company built the Rector a bridge so that he could walk from one side of his garden to the other. (Visit). When the canal was built many jobs were created and with it people to fill the vacancies. (Whittaker Minutes). Houses were built for the people who worked on the canal, this was the start of Stoke Bruerne becoming a busy area during the canal era. (Visit). The boats struggled to get across the canal and so pathways were made either side of the canal so horses could walk along pulling the boats behind them. The horses could not pull the barges through Blisworth Hill so ‘legers' would walk the barges through the tunnel, where the horses would again take over. The horses stayed in the tunnel stables when there were no barges to pull. While the legers were waiting to pull barges through, they would wait in the legers hut. This was a small shed in which they could keep warm and dry. (Visit). The barges also struggled up the hill of the canal, and so locks were put in. Evidence that the canal became more congested is that double locks were built in 1835, although only locks 14 and 15 affected Stoke Bruerne. (Canal Company Minutes) Many businesses were set up on the side of the canal this was because businessmen new it was a quick, easy and cheap way of transporting goods to many places like London using barges on the canal (Booklet). Many wharfs were set up so that goods could be loaded and unloaded. The goods being loaded on the barges would have been brought from local factories and people who made things that could be sold. The goods being unloaded from barges would have been taken to the local market and sold. (Visit/Booklet). A steam-powered Corn Mill was set up and this attracted many people to move to Stoke Bruerne because off the work on offer. Four Mill Cottages were built beside the mill so the workers could live there. So the canals arrival really gave the world of Stoke Bruerne a whole new way of life. In 1851 the double lock shut (Canal Company Minutes). Railways took over from canals as the main form of transport about 1851. The reasons why people started to use the railway more is because it was: * More direct and Quicker – the trains could travel a lot faster than the boats, which meant they could get to their destinations more efficiently. * Easy to extend – the trains were more direct, and a lot less hassle for companies that extend the track because unlike the canal no digging was required only a flat piece of land (Visit). * Transporting goods – Transporting heavy goods and pottery was easier and safer because it was less likely to break because the ride was smoother than the barges had been. The best thing with trains and transporting goods was food. Food could finally be transported over large areas. It could get there quickly and so it would stay fresh for markets and stalls the following day. Between 1874 – 1879 the Navigation Inn shut closed (Whittaker).The Corn Mill shut down at the start of the 1900's (Guide book). Work hours were cut in 1938 and so people had more leisure time. The railway had an impact on Stoke Bruerne because people could get there and go to various other places (Visit). One of the first motorways built was the M1.It is still very much used today by workers who commute to and from work. The roads in 1960 were not the same in quality as they are today. People did however prefer these to railways because their car was more convenient, they could leave there home when they wanted. Also people had more leisure time because they had paid holidays and worked fewer hours. So people looked for leisure pastimes. Tourism in Stoke Bruerne really started to flourish. Many of the old buildings were changed into businesses that would make money from tourism. The old corn Mill became a museum in 1963 and for many years previously a disused warehouse. The mill had its own docks, which has been made into the picnic area and car park (Canal side walk, booklet). The Boat Inn, a pub to go and have a drink in while visiting was a pub, a butcher, then a stable. It changed as the needs changed (Visit). The wharf office shop sells souvenirs, but was previously used to sign for documents, send letters. Etc. (visit) The mill cottages that were built for the workers to live in are now split in to two groups of two. Two are privately owned and two are rented out to tourists. The chapel tearooms used to be used as a dock to the toe path to bring coal to the steam engine to run the mill. The land cutaway known as the Blisworth tramway where the horses worked is being made in to a nature reserve by the British Waterway. As you can see Stoke Bruerne has changed dramatically in the last 250 years. Stoke Bruerne Sources. The best source I used was the visit because it gave a full picture of what Stoke Bruerne was like and the way it changed, for example: * The roofs on the buildings all had different styles e.g. slate, tile, etc. The visit also gave us a visual view, I picked up lots of little facts from our tour guide and the museum. Also the Whittaker Minutes and the Canal Side Walk were very useful for the certain information that I got for it although it was only 1 or 2 facts from each. The postcard disagreed with my visit because we saw quite dull boats, but the postcard showed bright boats, which we were also told, would not have been the case. Postcards are painted in the light of being sold and so make the village look a great place, this makes it bias. A historian could use the Whittaker Minutes and the Canal Side Walk to gain key information of what stoke Bruerne was like. These are documents from the time of the canal and so are likely to state the facts. This would be a reliable source as well as the land and its shape at Stoke Bruerne, for example you can see where the horses walked and so proves this did happen.

Chapter Outline Chapter 2

Chapter Outline Chapter 2 I. Developmental theories and the issues they raise A. The Importance of Theories 1. Guides the collection of new information a. what is most important to study b. what can be hypothesized or predicted c. how it should be studied B. Qualities of a Good Theory 1. Internally consistent– its different parts are not contradictory 2. Falsifiable– generates testable hypotheses 3. Supported by data– describes, predicts, and explains human development C. Four Major Theories (psychoanalytic, learning, cognitive developmental, contextual/systems) D. Nature/Nurture 1. Nature– genetic/biological predisposition . Nurture– emphasis on experience/environmental impact E Goodness/Badness of Human Nature 1. Hobbes– children are selfish and bad and society must teach them to behave in a civilized way 2. Rousseau– children are innately good and society must not interfere with innate goodness 3. Locke– child born neither go od nor bad, but like a tabula rasa or â€Å"blank slate† F. Activity and Passivity 1. Activity– control over one’s development 2. Passive– product of forces beyond one’s control (environmental or biological) G. Continuity/Discontinuity 1. Continuity– gradual change (small steps) 2.Discontinuity– abrupt change 3. Qualitative or quantitative change a. qualitative– changes in a degree b. quantitative– change in kind c. developmental stages part of discontinuity approach H. Universality/Context-Specificity 1. Universality– developmental change common to everyone 2. Context-specific– developmental changes vary by individual/culture II. Freud: Psychoanalytic theory A. Sigmund Freud: Viennese Physician and Founder of Psychoanalytic Theory 1. Emphasis on motive and emotions of which we are unaware 2.. Theory less influential than in the past B. Instincts and Unconscious Motives 1.Instincts– inborn biological forces that motivate behavior 2. Unconscious motivation– instinctive and inner force influences beyond our awareness/control 3. Emphasis on nature (biological instincts) C. Id, Ego, and Superego 1. Id a. all psychic energy contained here b. basic biological urges c. impulsive d. seeks immediate gratification 2. Ego a. rational side of personality b. ability to postpone pleasure 3. Superego a. internalized moral standards b. perfection principle (adhere to moral standards) 4. Id, ego and superego conflict common/inevitable 5. Problems arise when level of psychic energy unevenly distributed D.Psychosexual Development 1. Importance of libido– sex instinct’s energy shifts body locations 2. Five stages of psychosexual development a. oral stage b. anal stage c. phallic stage d. latency period e. genital stage 3. Conflict of id and social demands leads to ego’s defense mechanisms defense mechanisms– unconscious coping mechanisms of the ego i. fixationâ⠂¬â€œ Development arrested at early stage ii. regression– Retreat to earlier stage 4. Phallic stage– Oedipus and Electra complexes (incestuous desire) resolve by identifying with same-sex parent and incorporating parent’s values into the super ego 5.Genital stage– experienced during puberty a. conflict and distance from parents b. greater capacity to love and have children in adulthood c. teen pregnancy due to inability to manage sexual urges because of childhood experiences E. Strengths and Weaknesses 1. Difficult to test and ambiguous 2. Weak support for specific aspects of the theory (e. g. , sexual seduction by parents) 3. Greater support for broad ideas a. unconscious motivation b. importance of early experience, especially parenting III. Erikson: Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory A. Neo-Freudians– Important Disciples of Psychoanalytic Theory 1.Notable neo-Freudians: Jung, Horney, Sullivan, Anna Freud 2. Erikson is most important life span ne o-Freudian theorist 3. Erikson’s differences with Freud a. less emphasis on sexual and more on social influences b. less emphasis on id, more on rational ego c. more positive view of human nature d. more emphasis on developmental changes in adulthood B. Psychosocial Development 1. Resolution of eight major psychosocial crises a. trust versus mistrust– key is general responsiveness of caregiver b. autonomy versus shame– terrible twos c. initiative versus guilt– preschool sense of autonomy d. ndustry versus inferiority– elementary age sense of mastery e. identity versus role confusion– adolescence acquisition of identity f. intimacy versus isolation– young adult commitment g. generativity versus stagnation– middle age sense of having produced something meaningful h. integrity versus despair– elderly sense of life meaning and success 2. Personality strengths â€Å"ego virtues† developed during stages 3. Stage develop ment due to biological maturation and environmental demands 4. Teen pregnancy explained as due to weak ego or super ego (management of sexual urges rooted in early childhood) C.Strengths and Weaknesses 1. Its emphases on rational, adaptive nature and social influences easier to accept 2. Captures some central development issues 3. Influenced thinking about adolescence and beyond 4. Like Freud, vague and difficult to test 5. Provides description, but not adequate explanation of development IV. Learning theories A. Watson: Classical Conditioning 1. Emphasis on behavioral change in response to environmental stimuli 2. Behaviorism– belief that only observed behavior should be studied 3. Rejected psychoanalytic theory and explained Freud using learning principles 4.Conducted classical conditioning research with colleague Rosalie Rayner Watson and Rayner condition infant â€Å"Albert† to fear rat a. loud noise was unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus b. crying (fear) was uncon ditioned (unlearned) response c. white rat became conditioned (learned) stimulus producing conditioned response of crying after it was paired with loud noise 5. Classical conditioning involved when children learn to â€Å"love† caring parents 6. Reject stage conceptualization of development 7. Learning is learning B. Skinner: Operant Conditioning 1.In operant (instrumental) conditioning learning thought to become more or less probable depending on consequences 2. Reinforcement– consequences that strengthen a response (increase probability of future response) 3. Positive– something added a. positive reinforcement– something pleasant added in attempt to strengthen behavior b. positive reinforcement best when continuous 4. Negative– something removed a. negative reinforcement– something unpleasant taken in attempt to strengthen behavior 5. Punishment– consequences that suppress future response a. positive punishment– something unp leasant added in attempt to weaken behavior b. egative punishment– something pleasant taken in attempt to weaken behavior 6. Extinction– no consequence given and behavior becomes less frequent 7. Skinner emphasized positive reinforcement in child rearing 8. Physical punishment best used in specific circumstances like†¦ a. administered immediately following act b. administered consistently following offense c. not overly harsh d. accompanied by explanation e. administered by otherwise affectionate person f. combined with efforts to reinforcement acceptable behaviors 9. Too little emphasis on role of cognitive processes C.Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory 1. Humans’ cognitive abilities distinguish them from animals– can think about behavior and anticipate consequences 2. Observational learning (learning from models) most important mechanism for behavior change 3. Classic experiment using â€Å"Bobo† doll showed that children could learn from mode l 4. Vicarious reinforcement– learner changes behaviors based on consequences observed being given to a model 5. Human agency– ways in which humans deliberately exercise control over environments and lives self-efficacy– sense of one’s ability to control self or environment 6.Reciprocal determinism– mutual influence of individuals and social environments determines behavior 7. Doubt the existence of stages 8. View cognitive capacities as maturing over time 9. Learning experiences differentiate development of child of same age D. Strengths and Weaknesses of Learning Theory 1. Learning theories are precise and testable 2. Principles operate across the life span 3. Practical applications 4. Doesn't show that learning actually causes observed developmental changes 5. Oversimplifies development by focusing on experience and downplaying biological influences V. Cognitive developmental theoryA. Jean Piaget Swiss Scholar Greatly Influences Study of Intelle ctual Development in Children 1. Emphasizes errors in thinking (wrong answers) 2. Argues that cognitive development is qualitative in nature B. Piaget's Constructivism 1. Constructivism– active construction of knowledge based on experience 2. Stage progression due to interaction of biological maturation and environment C. Stages of Cognitive Development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operations) 1. Sensorimotor stage a. birth to age 2 b. deal with world directly through perceptions and actions . unable to use symbols 2. Preoperational stage a. ages 2 to 7 b. capacity for symbolic thought c. lack tools of logical thought d. cling to ideas they want to be true 3. Concrete operations stage a. ages 7 to 11 b. use trial-and-error strategy c. perform mental operations in their heads d. difficulty with abstract and hypothetical concepts 4. Formal operations stage a. ages 11 and later b. think abstractly and can formulate hypotheses c. can devise â€Å"g rand theories† about others D. Strengths and Weaknesses 1. Pioneer with long lasting impact 2. Many of Piaget’s concepts accepted (e. g. children active in own development) 3. Influential in education and child rearing practices 4. Too little emphasis on motivation and emotion 5. Questioning of stage model 6. Underestimated children’s cognitive skills VI. Contextual/Systems Theories A. Changes Over Life Span Arise from Ongoing Transactions and Mutual Influences Between Organism and Changing World No single end-point to development B. Vygotsky: A Sociocultural Perspective 1. Russian psychologist who took issue with Piaget 2. Sociocultural perspective– development shaped by organism growing in culture 3. Tools of a culture impact development . Cognitive development is social process 5. Children co-construct knowledge through social dialogues with others 6. Paid too little attention to biology C. Gottlieb: An Evolutionary/Epigenetic Systems View 1. Some conte xtual/systems theories have arisen from work by evolutionary biologists a. influenced by Darwin’s work b. genes aid in adapting to the environment 2. Ethology– study evolved behavior of species in natural environment a. birdsongs in the wild b. species-specific behavior of humans 3. Evolutionary/epigenetic systems perspective of Gottlieb a. evolution has endowed us with genes . predisposition to develop in certain direction genes do not dictate, make some outcomes more probable c. Gottleib’s emphases: i. activity of gene ii. activity of neuron iii. organism’s behavior iv. environmental influences d. interaction between genes and environmental factors e. instinctive behaviors may not be expressed if environmental conditions do not exist i. duckling vocalizations ii. baby rats seeking water f. normal development is combination of normal genes and normal early experience g. experience can influence genetic activity and change course of development i. ice che wing and impact on genes ii. lactose tolerance higher in cultures with dairy farming tradition h. difficult to predict outcome (multifactor influence) i. view people in continual flux and change is inevitable D. Strengths and Weaknesses 1. Complex like human development 2. Cannot predict outcome (wide range of paths) VII. Theories in Perspective A. Stage Theorists: Freud, Erikson, Piaget 1. Development guided in universal direction 2. Influenced by biological/maturational forces B. Learning Theorists: Watson, Skinner, Bandura 1. Emphasis on influence of environment 2.Deliberate steps taken by parents to shape development C. Contextual and Systems Theorists: Vygotsky, Gottleib 1. Focus on dynamic relationship between person and environment 2. Focus on impact of both biology and environment 3. Potential exists for qualitative and quantitative change 4. Developmental pathways depend on interplay of internal and external influences D. Changing World Views 1. Our understanding of human d evelopment is ever changing 2. Contextual/systems theories prevalent today 3. Less extreme, but more complex positions  © Copyright 2006 Thomson. All rights reserved.